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Potassium (K) is crucial for rice yield and quality, but continuous yield increase reduces protein content, challenging the balance between high yield and quality. This study analysed 3 178 case studies (1994–2024) on K management impacts on rice yield, grain protein, and amylose content, evaluating effects of K fertiliser rates, base-topdressing ratios, planting regions, and soil properties. The results showed that K application significantly increased rice yield, protein content and amylose content by 11.6, 2.0 and 1.0%, respectively. Importantly, we identified targeted K fertilisation strategies tailored to different quality goals: optimising for eating quality, nutritional quality, or synergistic improvement of yield and comprehensive quality. This study provides a scientific basis for precision K management to help growers balance rice yield with specific quality needs.

Soil salinisation is a key determinant in soil fertility decline, exerting a direct negative impact on soil organic carbon. In the context of global warming, investigating the response mechanisms of soil organic carbon pools with varying salinity levels to climate change is essential for accurately assessing the carbon cycle and emission potential of degraded soils. Based on soil samples (B1–B6) collected along a coastal salinity gradient, indoor incubation experiments were conducted at 15 °C and 25 °C to characterise soil respiration and its temperature sensitivity (Q10). Double-exponential models were used to simulate soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralisation, characterising active and stable organic carbon pools. The results demonstrated that the Q₁₀ value of the stable organic carbon pool (7–8% of SOC mineralisation) was 103% higher than that of the active organic carbon pool (the initial 1% of SOC mineralisation). The Q₁₀ value of the stable organic carbon pool was 32.6% higher at the high-salinity sites (B1, B2) than at the low-salinity sites (B4, B5). Soil organic carbon, total nitrogen (TN), and total salt (TS) were key regulators of Q₁₀. The Q₁₀ of the active organic carbon pool correlated positively with SOC and TN but negatively with TS, whereas the stable pool showed the opposite trends. The stable organic carbon pool exhibits a salinity-amplified Q₁₀, implying that predictive models must account for this mechanism to avoid substantially underestimating carbon losses from degraded saline soils.

The research was conducted in a long-term stationary experiment established on light grey forest surface-gleyed soil in 1965. Data presented in this study were collected during 2022–2024 growing seasons within the framework of this long-term experiment. The experiment is registered in the NAAS long-term field experiments registry (certificate No. 29) and the Global Long-Term Agricultural Experiments Network (GLTEN). The study examined the effect of growing red clover in a four-field crop rotation on nutrient balance at different fertiliser and lime doses and ratios. Red clover was used for feed and feed-green manure purposes. The research aimed to substantiate optimal methods of utilising this valuable forage crop and optimise fertilisation systems to ensure sustainable agricultural development. Growing the first cut of red clover for feed purposes and the second as green manure with fertilisation (N₁₀₅P₁₀₁K₁₀₁ + organic fertilisers + liming) ensures a positive surface balance of 402 kg/ha of nitrogen, 150 kg/ha of phosphorus, and 204 kg/ha of potassium. These data are almost twice higher than indicators under minimal fertilisation doses. Despite the reduction in symbiotic nitrogen fixation from 217 kg/ha to 147 kg/ha when growing red clover in crop rotation with intensive fertilisation, it remains an effective phytobiological ameliorant.

Developing and employing new, sustainable, and eco-friendly biostimulants that enhance plant growth and alleviate the harmful effects of environmental challenges is a major focus for many researchers. Salt stress is a critical constraint on plant growth and a limiting factor in crop productivity, particularly during the early developmental stages in the nurseries. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Java plum) is an important fruit tree and widely cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. This study was designed to develop Cassia javanica subsp. nodosa leaf extract (CLE) as a new sustainable and eco-friendly biostimulant capable of triggering the metabolic adaptation to salt stress in Java plum seedlings grown in nurseries. CLE successfully mitigated reductions in growth, biomass yield, and secondary metabolite production caused by salinity. Although salt stress depressed morphological characters and biomass yield, CLE foliar spray enhanced these parameters. Moreover, CLE enhanced the ferric reducing antioxidant potential, catalase, and superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, increased phenolic content, and reduced hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) accumulation and lipid peroxidation. Additionally, CLE application increased seedling biomass and stimulated antioxidant activity, osmoprotectant accumulation, and overall tolerance to salinity stress. These observations provide new insights into CLE’s potential as an eco-friendly biostimulant for enhancing salt tolerance in Java plum seedlings.

Drought is a major abiotic stressor that limits crop growth and is often associated with oxidative stress. We evaluated whether foliar silicon (Si) application affects primary root anatomy, plant height, and phenolic metabolism in three common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) cultivars (La Harpe, Panda, and Smuga) exposed to water deficit. Plants were grown under controlled conditions in four treatments: control; drought; control + Si, and drought + Si. Qualitative anatomical assessment revealed that Si promoted more advanced development of the primary root central cylinder, most notably in La Harpe under drought conditions, where a continuous ring of secondary xylem and a well-developed pith were observed. Drought significantly reduced plant height in all cultivars; Si partially alleviated this reduction in La Harpe and Panda, but not in Smuga. Drought generally increased total phenolic content (TPC) and phenolic acid content (PAC) in both leaves and roots, and Si further enhanced these responses, with the highest values under drought + Si. Overall, the results indicate cultivar-dependent effectiveness of foliar silicon (Si) and suggest that Si contributes to coordinated structural and biochemical adjustments under water deficit conditions. To assess the transferability of these responses, further verification across a broader range of genotypes and under different intensities and durations of drought is warranted.

To clarify the effects of post-anthesis low light on grain yield and starch quality of waxy and non-waxy soft wheat, a field experiment was conducted from 2023 to 2025. Two wheat cultivars, Jinuo 2 (waxy soft wheat) and Quanmai 725 (non-waxy soft wheat), were employed as test materials, and four shading treatments (no shading, 10% shading, 20% shading, and 30% shading) were applied after anthesis. The regulatory effects of different shading intensities on wheat yield, grain quality, starch granule size distribution and starch viscosity properties were systematically analysed. The results showed that post-anthesis low light stress significantly reduced the grain number per spike, 1 000-grain weight and grain yield, while increasing the protein content, wet gluten content and sedimentation value of wheat grains. Under low light stress, the volume and surface area proportions of A-type starch granules increased, while those of B-type starch granules decreased. Under the same shading condition, Jinuo 2 exhibited a higher proportion of B-type starch granules and a lower proportion of A-type starch granules than Quanmai 725. With increasing shading intensity, the peak, trough and final viscosities, as well as the breakdown and setback values, of grain starch decreased continuously, and all viscosity parameters of Quanmai 725 were significantly higher than those of Jinuo 2. Furthermore, post-anthesis low light reduced the onset, peak and conclusion gelatinisation temperatures and increased gelatinisation enthalpy. Quanmai 725 had higher gelatinisation temperatures, whereas Jinuo 2 possessed higher gelatinisation enthalpy. Correlation analysis indicated that the volume distribution of B-type starch granules (≤ 10 μm) was significantly positively correlated with starch viscosity parameters, while A-type starch granules (> 10 μm) showed a significant negative correlation. In conclusion, post-anthesis low light reduces the yield and the proportion of B-type starch granules, increases the proportion of A-type starch granules, decreases starch pasting viscosity and elevates gelatinisation enthalpy in both soft wheat cultivars. Compared with Quanmai 725, Jinuo 2 is more sensitive to post-anthesis low light stress in terms of starch granule distribution characteristics.

Changes in the content of mineral nutrients (Ca, Mg, K, Na) and risk elements (Mn, Cd) in the assimilatory organs of selected plant species were studied along the altitudinal gradient of A‒D zones polluted by alkaline emissions from the magnesite factory Lubeník (Slovak Republic). Multivariate statistical analysis and comparison with background values in other studies demonstrate persistent intoxication of some plants by Mg (all study plants), K (Lactuca saligna, Dryopteris filix-mas), Mn (Quercus polycarpa, Carpinus betulus, Betula pendula, Lactuca saligna) and Cd (Quercus polycarpa, Carpinus betulus, Betula pendula, Lactuca saligna). Overall, Lactuca saligna accumulated the highest amounts of Mg, Cd, Na and K near the magnesite plant, suggesting its potential as an effective bioindicator of elemental pollution. Unbalanced Ca/Mg ratios, lower than 1, were recorded predominantly in all plant species sampled near the magnesite plant; unbalanced K/(Mg + Ca) ratios were predominantly in woody species.

Water deficit is one of the most important abiotic factors limiting crop yields. To better understand the link between carbohydrate balance and drought stress response in strawberry plants (Fragaria vesca), we monitored by liquid chromatography the carbohydrate status in leaves during exposure to drought of different duration and intensity as well as subsequent recovery. In two greenhouse experiments that differed in the rate of reaching the target water deficit, strawberry leaves showed osmotic adjustment, with gradual increases in glucose and fructose content, likely provided by observed starch degradation. At the point of the most severe stress, proline content increased, while stress markers, such as malondialdehyde content and chlorophyll fluorescence, showed no significant changes. It indicates the defence mechanisms’ ability to protect cellular structures effectively. Strawberry, a member of the Rosaceae family, motivated us to investigate the role of sorbitol in the stress response. However, we found no sorbitol in any stress or control situations. Finally, testing sorbitol’s ability to support strawberry plant or non-green callus growth in vitro did not indicate that sorbitol could be used as a carbon and energy source. In conclusion, strawberries exhibit marked changes in soluble carbohydrate and starch content as an efficient defence against drought, without apparent involvement of sorbitol.

Hemp is becoming increasingly popular, and many new varieties are coming onto the market to meet the requirements of different industries. In this study, the seed and stem yield, seed nutritional properties and the biochemical characteristics of the inflorescences of seven European varieties (Fedora 17, Futura 75, KC Dóra, Monoica, Santhica 27, Tiborszallasi, USO 31) were investigated in a 3-year field trial. Futura 75 and Tiborszallasi stand out as varieties with the highest potential in the conditions of the experiment (humid continental climate with oceanic influences, heavy soil). Futura 75 achieved the highest seed yield (505 kg/ha dry matter), stem yield (8 036 kg/ha fresh matter), protein yield (140 kg/ha) and oil yield (181 kg/ha). There were no differences in protein content (average 21.0%) among varieties. The total unsaturated fatty acid content was as high as 87.6% at Tiborszallasi. The best ratio between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids was 3 : 1 in Tiborszallasi, which had also the highest oil content (30.2%), the highest total phenolic content (2.8 mg caffeic acid (CA)/g) and the best antioxidant potential (6.69 EC50 DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) mg/L). Most varieties had higher cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol contents in the inflorescence at seed maturity (from 0.22 to 3.3 for cannabidiol (CBD) and from 0.00 to 0.32 for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)) compared to full flowering (from 0.17 to 4.33 for CBD and from 0.00 to 0.52 for THC, on average 2.64% for CBD and 0.19% for THC), presenting an opportunity for dual-purpose use.

The availability of new sensor technologies, such as thermal and hyperspectral imaging, enables early-stage weed detection and species identification and density estimation, both of which are crucial for effective weed management. Thermal imaging successfully distinguished between dicotyledonous (oilseed rape, pea, Stellaria media, Triplerospermum inodorum, Veronica persica) and monocotyledonous species (barley, wheat, sorghum and Echinochloa crus-galli) except Amaranthus retroflexus, during early growth stages. The most pronounced differences in hyperspectral reflectance occurred at 550 nm, where five distinct plant groups were recognisable (sum of squares = 0.7604, F-value = 105.1). The highest hyperspectral reflectance was recorded for oilseed rape, followed by Stellaria media. The same trend was found for the normalised difference index (NDI), which also showed five distinct groups. These findings indicate that thermography and hyperspectral imaging have strong potential as effective tools for supporting weed detection in precision agriculture; however, further research and field validation are required before routine implementation in agricultural practice.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a lignin-free nanofibrillar hydrogel with high water-binding capacity, mechanical strength, and biodegradability. Despite these properties, a Scopus bibliometric survey of 738 publications (2015–2025) showed that agricultural applications accounted for only 17% of BC research, while biomedical and materials-science applications dominated. This review contributes a bibliometric quantification of that imbalance; a four-function synthesis of BC as a cultivation substrate, soil amendment, seed or biological carrier, and agrochemical platform; and a production route-property-application matrix linking waste feedstocks to agronomic functions. Direct crop evidence remains limited. In a controlled tomato-seedling study, 0.01% BC increased substrate water-holding capacity by up to 14% and improved survival, root development, and nutrient availability under restricted irrigation. Supporting evidence from plant-derived cellulose and other biopolymer hydrogels demonstrates improved germination and soil moisture regulation, but should not be interpreted as direct validation of BC. Feedstock selection affects production cost, material properties, and application fit simultaneously. Multi-season field trials, matched comparisons with commercial substrates and hydrogels, standardised characterisation, and life-cycle and techno-economic assessments remain priorities.

Manganese (Mn) is often underestimated in plant nutrition. Its availability to plants is influenced by several factors, which can lead to Mn deficiency or toxicity. The objective was to evaluate the transformation of soil Mn over 21 years in a long-term field experiment. Fertilising with (i) sewage sludge 1 (SS1); (ii) sewage sludge 3 (3 times higher nitrogen (N) dose, SS3); (iii) farmyard manure (FYM); (iv) mineral nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK) and (v) mineral nitrogen in addition to straw (Nst) was studied to evaluate the transformations of Mn in soil using different extraction methods at the 5 locations. There was a general reduction in the pH during the experiment. Soil acidification caused by mineral N fertiliser increased the bioavailable Mn forms under NPK treatment. This Mn was mobilised from soil reserves, leading to depletion of Mn sources. Application of SS and FYM led to an increase in non-bioavailable Mn fractions, while the expected increase in biologically available Mn was not observed. As the high pH of soil limits Mn availability, foliar Mn application can be recommended for agricultural practice in high-pH soils. On the contrary, liming can be recommended for low-pH soil with high bioavailable Mn content to mitigate the risk of Mn toxicity.

This study investigated the alleviating effects and physiological responses to foliar-applied potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) on rice seedlings under high-temperature (HT) stress. An early indica hybrid rice, YLY17 (high-temperature-sensitive), was used as the planting material. Four treatment groups were set up: (a) NT – normal temperature; (b) NT + KDP – normal temperature with foliar application of different KDP concentrations (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4%); (c) HT – high temperature treatment without foliar application of KDP, and (d) HT + KDP – high temperature with foliar application of different KDP concentrations. At the three-leaf stage, rice seedlings were subjected to simulated HT stress (32~38 °C during the day and 26~32 °C at night) for 10 days. Growth indicators, photosynthetic parameters, antioxidant characteristics, osmotic adjustment substances, and related metabolic enzymatic activities of young rice seedlings were quantified, and the alleviating effect of KDP was comprehensively evaluated by principal component analysis (PCA). The results showed that HT stress significantly reduced plant height, fresh weight, and dry weight, decreased chlorophyll content and SPAD value, and decreased the net photosynthetic rate (P_n), stomatal conductance (g_s), and transpiration rate (T_r), while increasing intercellular carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration (c_i). At the same time, it led to the accumulation of superoxide anion (O₂^–), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), and malondialdehyde (MDA), and induced increases in antioxidant enzyme and osmotic adjustment-related enzyme activities. Foliar spraying of KDP could effectively alleviate the above damage caused by HT stress, with 0.3% KDP being the most effective treatment. Compared with HT treatment, 0.3% KDP treatment significantly increased plant height, fresh weight and dry weight by 7.6, 10.6 and 10.2%, respectively, improved chlorophyll content and photosynthetic parameters, enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and MDA, and promoted the accumulation of osmotic adjustment substances such as soluble protein (SP), proline (Pro), soluble sugar (SS) and sucrose (SUC), as well as increased the activities of nitrate reductase (NR), glutamine synthetase (GS), sucrose synthase (SUS) and sucrose phosphate synthase (SPS). The PCA results showed that the order of comprehensive physiological activity index was NT + KDP > NT > KDP + HT > HT, indicating that KDP enhances heat tolerance by coordinately regulating photosynthesis, antioxidant defence, and osmotic adjustments. This study provides a theoretical basis and technical reference for using KDP to alleviate HT stress in rice seedlings.

In Central Europe, soybean is typically sown in narrow rows, whereas wide‑row precision planters offer more accurate within‑row spacing and greater flexibility for inter‑row cultivation and targeted applications. We evaluated whether soybean established with a 500‑mm precision planter responds to changes in seeding rate. A two‑year on‑farm strip trial (2023–2024) was conducted in Czechia with two determinate cultivars Satelia and Tertia in four target seeding rates (20, 40, 60, 80 germinating seeds/m²). Plant morphology, seed yield, and seed composition were assessed. Branch number (3.1–1 pcs/plant for Satelia; 2.4 – 1.1 pcs/plant for Tertia), pod number (54.2 – 22.6 pcs/plant for Satelia; 53.4 – 28.8 pcs/plant for Tertia), and fertile nodes (11.6 – 9.3 pcs/plant for Satelia; 12.2 – 9.7 pcs/plant for Tertia) all decreased linearly with increasing seeding rate in both tested cultivars, indicating strong morphological compensation at low plant densities. Seed yield dry mass and seed composition were not significantly affected by seeding rate within the tested range, while year and cultivar effects were more pronounced for several seed quality components. These results suggest that soybean yield and quality are largely buffered against variation in plant population.

Desert grasslands are critical carbon sinks in arid regions, where herbaceous species selection plays a vital role in ecosystem restoration. While plant life cycle (annual vs. perennial) is known to affect soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, its influence on SOC molecular composition remains poorly understood. This study examined the accumulation and environmental drivers of plant- and microbial-derived carbon biomarkers (lignin phenols and amino sugars) across the 0–40 cm soil profile under four desert herbaceous species: perennial Karelinia caspica (Pall.) Less. and Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin., annual Chenopodium glaucum L. and Salsola lanata (Pall.) Botsch. Plant-derived C contributed more to SOC (9–15%) than microbial-derived C (3–8%), with contributions differing significantly between plant life cycles. These differences were shaped primarily by edaphic factors: plant-derived C accumulation was mainly regulated by pH, whereas microbial-derived C was affected by labile organic carbon (LOC), elemental stoichiometry (C/N, C/P), electrical conductivity, and pH. Our results indicate that herbaceous species influence SOC sequestration through divergent plant and microbial pathways. Perennial species, especially K. caspica and G. inflata, enhance SOC storage more effectively and should be prioritised in desert grassland restoration.

Drought stress severely impairs seed germination. Selenium (Se) is a potential mitigator of abiotic stress, but its physiological mechanisms in alleviating osmotic stress during seed germination remain poorly understood. This study investigated how Se alleviates the inhibition of rice seed germination induced by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-simulated drought. The results indicated that co-application of Se and PEG effectively alleviated the PEG-induced suppression of germination. Se significantly increased the activities of superoxide dismutase by 31.0%, peroxidase by 39.0%, catalase by 42.9%, and ascorbate peroxidase by 41.8%, along with elevating the concentrations of glutathione by 19.0% and ascorbate by 38.3%. Consequently, Se attenuated the PEG-induced burst of reactive oxygen species, reducing H₂O₂ by 21.0% and O₂^– by 19.1%, and alleviated lipid peroxidation, as reflected by a 20.0% decrease in malondialdehyde concentration. Furthermore, Se partially restored osmotic homeostasis by increasing the accumulation of soluble sugars by 15.9%, soluble proteins by 11.4%, free amino acids by 18.4%, and free proline by 26.3%. It also counteracted PEG-imposed inhibition of hydrolytic enzymes, enhancing α-amylase and protease activities by 26.6% and 11.2%, respectively. Notably, Se accumulation in seeds was reduced under PEG stress, suggesting impaired the penetration of exogenous Se under PEG-simulated drought. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Se alleviates PEG-induced osmotic stress in germinating rice seeds by enhancing antioxidant capacity, maintaining osmotic balance, and sustaining reserve mobilisation.

Selenium (Se) biofortification of soybean sprouts presents a promising approach for enhancing dietary Se intake. However, the physiological mechanisms of Se promoting growth remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the effects of selenite (Na₂SeO₃) at concentrations of 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10 μmol/L on soybean sprout development over 72 h. The results indicated that 5.0 and 7.5 μmol/L Na₂SeO₃ significantly promoted hypocotyl elongation and biomass accumulation. Se predominantly accumulated in the radicle, followed by the hypocotyl and cotyledon. Moderate selenite levels enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase; increased the concentrations of reduced glutathione, ascorbic acid, and free proline; and effectively suppressed the accumulation of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide, thereby reducing malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration and alleviating oxidative stress. Concurrently, amylase and protease activities in cotyledons were stimulated, accelerating the hydrolysis of storage reserves. The resulting increases in soluble sugars, proteins, and free amino acids in the hypocotyl supported its elongation and biomass increase. In contrast, 10 μmol/L Na₂SeO₃ suppressed antioxidant enzyme activities, elevated reactive oxygen species and MDA levels, and inhibited growth. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that moderate Se enhances soybean sprout growth primarily by increasing antioxidant capacity, reducing oxidative stress, and facilitating the mobilisation of storage reserves toward the elongating hypocotyl, thereby revealing key physiological mechanisms for cultivating high-quality, Se-enriched sprouts.

Soil salinisation is a major factor limiting plant growth and land utilisation in arid and semiarid regions. This study focused on the native halophyte Suaeda salsa in western Inner Mongolia to explore halophyte-associated microbial resources with plant growth-promoting potential under saline conditions. A total of 30 salt-tolerant bacteria strains were isolated from its rhizosphere. Among them, Bacillus infantis strain 29 tolerated up to 10% NaCl (w/v) and exhibited multiple plant-growth-promoting traits, including highly active 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production, phosphorus solubilisation, potassium mobilisation and diazotrophic potential as indicated by growth on nitrogen-free medium. Under pot conditions, inoculation with strain 29, particularly in combination with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), promoted plant growth under saline stress. In Suaeda salsa, the combined treatment significantly increased fresh weight and root length relative to the control, and positive growth responses were also observed in Zea mays and Medicago sativa. This study proposes an effective "halophyte-PGPR-AMF" synergistic strategy and provides a potential biological approach and microbial resource reference for improving plant growth and crop performance in salt-affected soils of western Inner Mongolia and other arid and semiarid regions with similar environmental conditions.

Soil available and total zinc are important indicators of soil zinc status, yet the global effects of different fertilisation practices on soil available and total zinc and the drivers of their variation remain insufficiently quantified. We conducted a global meta-analysis based on data extracted from published field studies. A total of 1 240 paired observations of soil available zinc from 94 studies and 364 paired observations of soil total zinc from 44 studies published between 1993 and 2024 were compiled. The effects of eight fertiliser types (mineral fertilisers without zinc [CF], compost, manure, zinc fertiliser, CF combined with either compost [CFC] or manure [CFM] or zinc fertiliser [CFZn], and compost combined with zinc fertiliser [CZn]) on the soil available and total zinc content were assessed by meta-analysis. The results indicated that compared to the control group, soil available zinc content increased significantly under treatments CZn, CFZn, zinc fertiliser, CFM, manure, CFC, and compost by 158, 134, 133, 84, 78, 43, and 35%, respectively. Additionally, manure, CFM, zinc fertiliser, CFZn, and CZn treatments significantly enhanced soil total zinc content, with increases ranging from 25% to 32%. Applying zinc fertiliser at > 20 kg Zn/ha significantly increased soil-available zinc. In the medium-rate CZn class (10–20 kg Zn/ha), soil available zinc increased from 0.78 mg/kg in the control soils to 3.46 mg/kg in the treated soils. Among crop systems, wheat showed a stronger response in soil-available zinc, whereas rice-growing systems showed relatively larger increases in soil-total zinc under manure and CFM treatments. Fertilisation intensity, crop types, soil organic carbon, and soil pH emerged as key drivers of variation in soil available zinc, whereas the main drivers of soil total zinc varied among fertiliser types and were more often associated with fertiliser rate and crop types. When soil organic carbon was ≤ 12 g/kg or soil pH was > 7.5, applying CZn at 10–20 kg Zn/ha showed greater potential to increase soil available zinc. These findings suggest that soil zinc management should be optimised based on fertilisation intensity, crop type, soil organic carbon, and soil pH to improve zinc availability while avoiding excessive accumulation.

Cadmium (Cd) is a common heavy metal contaminant in agricultural soils; its high bioaccumulation potential and toxicity mean it enters the human body via the food chain, posing a health risk. Perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is renowned for its high tolerance to heavy metal toxicity and is frequently used in phytoremediation. This study examined growth morphology, activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and glutathione reductase (GR), as well as non-enzymatic antioxidant contents in two perennial ryegrass cultivars: WNS (Venus, low Cd accumulation) and YY (Excellent, high Cd accumulation), under Cd treatments of 0, 3, 6, and 12 mg/kg Cd²⁺. Under Cd stress, WNS exhibited significantly higher plant height, leaf length, tiller number, GPX activity, and glutathione (GSH) content compared with YY. At 12 mg/kg Cd, GR activity in WNS was also significantly higher than in YY (P < 0.05). In contrast, at each Cd level, YY showed significantly higher leaf Cd accumulation, APX and DHAR activities, and ascorbic acid (AsA) content than WNS (P < 0.05), accompanied by elevated oxidised glutathione (GSSG) content. The comprehensive response index of YY under 3, 6, and 12 mg/kg Cd was 2.77, 2.91, and 2.94 times that of WNS, respectively. These findings suggest that WNS mitigates Cd toxicity and sustains growth homeostasis by maintaining higher GPX and GR activities and higher GSH content within the GSH-GSSG cycle. This study provides a theoretical basis for elucidating the differential Cd tolerance mechanisms among ryegrass cultivars with contrasting Cd accumulation capacities and offers insights to refine phytoremediation strategies in Cd-contaminated soils.

Rising CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is a matter of global concern and poses apprehension about how plants will adapt to the changing environment. Various studies have proved that under high CO₂ levels, plant physiology alters and affects plant functioning. However, under elevated CO₂, the stomatal characters and their relation with physiological responses are still not yet clear. To find out these changes in the stomatal parameters at ambient and two elevated CO₂ (550 ppm and 700 ppm) levels, four genotypes of maize (Zea mays L.) viz. DHM-117, Harsha, Varun and M-24 were grown in open-top chambers. In the study, it was observed that the stomatal density increased, stomatal size altered, stomatal conductance (g_s) and transpiration rate (T_r) decreased under elevated CO₂ (eCO₂) while photosynthetic rate (Pn), water use efficiency (WUE), yield and biomass, of which especially the reproductive biomass increased. Under eCO₂, stomatal and physiological changes were genotypic and CO₂ concentration specific. Increased stomatal density at eCO₂ was mainly due to increased abaxial stomatal density. The improved P_n and reduced T_r at 550 ppm improved the WUE in the plants, while this response was not observed at 700 ppm. These results elucidate that this C4 crop responded positively to up to 550 ppm of CO₂ concentrations, and beyond this, the impact was minimal.

In the present study, a field establishment was initiated in 2018 with eight treatment conditions using biochar application rates of 0, 10, 20, or 30 t/ha and nitrogen application rates of 0 or 150 kg/ha. After two years, the impact of biochar on carbon-nitrogen distributions, soil aggregate stability, and wheat yields was then assessed. The predominant mechanical aggregates after two years were > 5 mm and 2–5 mm granular aggregates, with notable increases in the amounts of these aggregates following the application of biochar with or without nitrogen that coincided with an increase in soil aggregate mechanical stability. Relative to control conditions, aggregate mean weight diameter (MWD) and geometric weight diameter (GMD) values rose by 17.6% and 24.3% for biochar with nitrogen treatment (N: 150 kg/ha; biochar: 20 t/ha), respectively. Biochar application alone and the application of both biochar and nitrogen fertiliser were associated with 6.4–20.2% and 20.7–42.7% increases in spring wheat yields, respectively. Overall, the results of these analyses highlight the value of applying biochar to improve soil quality and boost crop yields proximal to the study site. This study provided the scientific basis for the rational fertilisation and scientific management of biochar combined with nitrogen fertiliser in the irrigation area of Northern Xinjiang, China.

In this study, a synergist made of itaconic acid, maleic acid, acrylic acid and other active ingredients polymerised was sprayed on the surface of nitrogen (N) fertiliser particles to make synergistic nitrogen fertilisers (SNF). To explore the effect of SNF on N metabolism of wheat in saline-alkaline land, five treatments were set up: CK – ordinary N fertiliser (299.86 kg N/ha); T1 – SNF (299.86 kg N/ha); T2 – SNF (239.89 kg N/ha); T3 – SNF (179.92 kg N/ha); T4 – SNF (119.94 kg N/ha). The aboveground dry weight of wheat, the photosynthetic characteristics of wheat flag leaves, the activity of the N metabolism enzyme of wheat flag leaves, the expression of N transporter-related genes in wheat roots, and the N accumulation and transport of plants were determined. The results showed that the T1 treatment performed the best. During the two years, the N translocation from stems and leaves to spikes of plants at maturity in T1 was 33.18–45.55% higher than that of CK. The N content of wheat spikes was 12.01–12.66% higher than that of CK. The activities of nitrate reductase, glutamine synthetase, glutamate synthetase and the expression of nitrate transporter gene TaNRT1.1 and ammonium transporter gene TaAMT1.1 were significantly higher than that of CK. The aboveground dry weight of wheat and photosynthetic characteristics of flag leaves were significantly higher than those of CK in T1, whereas the intercellular CO2 concentration was significantly lower than that of CK. The application of SNF positively affected N accumulation and transport in wheat, wheat yield, and fertiliser utilisation, as well as reduced N loss in saline-alkaline land.

Clarifying the effects of meteorological factors on the growth and development of fresh maize after delayed sowing is important for selecting appropriate sowing dates and improving yield. Six sowing dates (B1 (March 10); B2 (March 20); B3 (March 30); B4 (April 9); B5 (April 19), and B6 (April 29)) and three fresh maize cultivars (A1 (Wan Nuo 2000); A2 (Nongke Nuo 336), and A3 (Caitian Nuo 6)) were chosen for experiments conducted between 2021 and 2022 in Guiyang, Qingzhen City, China. The results showed that the whole growth period and sowing-silking period were significantly reduced with delayed sowing, while the grain-filling period was relatively stable. Delayed sowing was beneficial in increasing the number of endosperm cells and the weight of the hundred kernels. The graining filling rate and the activities of four key starch synthesis enzymes (sucrose synthase, ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, starch branching enzyme, and starch debranching enzyme) were significantly influenced by light, temperature, and precipitation, and they mainly affected the hundred kernel weight. The yield tended to increase with delayed sowing, and the correlation analysis between precipitation and yield at different sowing periods showed a significant effect of precipitation on yield. Delaying the sowing to mid-early April was more favourable for grain filling, enhanced key enzyme activity, and increased the kernel weight and yield. These results highlight the importance of choosing excellent cultivars and matching them with the most suitable sowing date to fully exploit climatic resources and achieve high-yield and high-efficiency cultivation of fresh maize.

The issue of heavy metals (HMs) contamination poses a significant challenge in the environment, exerting a severe impact on the growth and productivity of crops. Cadmium (Cd) is specifically identified as the seventh heavy metal among the top 20 pollutants, primarily due to its elevated phytotoxicity and its solubility in water. In the current study, foliar application of glycine betaine (GB) (500 µmol) investigated the toxic effects of cadmium in maize plants subjected to two Cd concentrations (50 and 100 µmol) as CdCl2. The maize plants exposed to Cd stress exhibited a massive reduction in growth, biomass, photosynthetic pigments [chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), carotenoids, and total pigments], gas exchange parameters [transpiration rate (Tr), net photosynthetic rate (Pn), intracellular CO2 concentration (ci), and stomatal conductance (gs)], relative water content (RWC), and organic osmolytes content [total soluble protein (TSS), and total soluble sugar (TSS)]. These impacts were significant with the 100 µmol CdCl2 treatment. Moreover, Cd led to remarked increase in proline, nonenzymatic antioxidants levels [ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH)] as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase (GR). On the other hand, GB application efficiently relieved the Cd toxic impacts on maize and maintained higher growth criteria, gas exchange parameters, photosynthetic pigments, RWC, and organic osmolytes. In addition, the exogenous application of GB added more enhancement to the antioxidative system (enzymatic and nonenzymatic). These results imply that GB could significantly preserve maize growth under Cd toxicity conditions by maintaining photosynthetic characteristics, water status, and antioxidant system. This suggests an enhancement in the plant’s resilience to stress induced by heavy metals.

Despite accumulating evidence for the adverse effects of magnesium (Mg) deficiency or excess on grain crops, how Mg imbalance affects plant growth and potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) nutrition in vegetable crops is still unclear. The aim of this study was to ascertain the response of plant growth, nutrient uptake and Mg-K-Ca interactions in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) to various levels of Mg supply. The growth parameters and nutrient contents of hydroponic plants were measured under the Mg levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 3.0 mmol/L Mg²⁺ from seedling to fruit ripening stage. Results showed that both Mg deficiency (0 mmol/L Mg²⁺) and excess (3.0 mmol/L Mg²⁺) negatively affected shoot and root growth, leading to a noticeable decrease in total plant biomass across different stages (41.2–52.8% and 17.7–38.3%, respectively). Mg imbalance additionally altered leaf morphology and disrupted chloroplast structure. As a consequence of increased Mg levels, the Mg contents in various plant organs increased, whereas the Ca contents decreased substantially. The trend of K contents under different Mg levels was dependent on the plant growth stage. Although Mg levels did not prominently affect plant K contents during the early growth stage, they were significantly negatively correlated in the leaves and positively correlated in the fruit during the late growth stage. When translocated from roots to aboveground organs, Mg and Ca were mainly distributed in the leaves, with K preferentially distributed in the fruit. The findings of this study underscore that the symptoms of Mg imbalance generally develop from middle leaves in vegetable crops, exemplified by tomato, which is different from the pattern in common grain crops. Vegetable production necessitates nutrient supply for the middle and upper parts of Mg-deficient plants, and attention should be paid to the nutritional imbalance of Ca and K in plants under excessive Mg supply.

Biochar plays an important role in agricultural production as it can improve soil fertility, promote nutrient adsorption and enhance plant growth. However, the distribution of biochar in the soil significantly impacts its application effect. In order to investigate the impact of non-uniform biochar distribution on soil nutrient uptake, root shape, peanut development, and the makeup of soil microbial communities, we carried out greenhouse peanut pot studies. This experiment followed a completely randomised design with four treatments, each with three replications. The four treatments were as follows: no biochar application (B0); concentrated biochar application near seeds (B1); relatively concentrated surface application of biochar (B2), and uniformly dispersed application of biochar (B3). The findings demonstrated that, compared to the no-biochar scenario, the aboveground and root nitrogen uptake was significantly (P < 0.05) improved by the B2 treatment, increasing by 42.79% and 51.39%, respectively, compared to the control group. Additionally, it reduced the concentrations of NO₃^–-N and NH₄⁺-N in the soil. The B2 treatment also significantly (P < 0.05) increased the net photosynthetic rate and aboveground dry matter weight, increasing by 196.85% and 53.96%, respectively, compared to the B0 treatment. The B1 and B3 treatments also demonstrated a higher promoting effect. The growth of the root system and the quantity of root nodules were promoted by the addition of biochar. The number of root nodules in the B2 treatment was 72.22% higher than that in the control group. In terms of microbial and bacterial communities, the addition of biochar increased the number of nitrogen-fixing bacteria to a certain extent, while the relative abundance of soil bacterial communities showed no significant differences. In general, the non-uniform distribution of biochar in the soil significantly affected peanuts’ vegetative growth and developmental effects. The relatively concentrated surface application of biochar treatments contributes to improving plant nutrient uptake and root system development. This provides a more effective application method for agricultural personnel to apply biochar fertiliser in the future.

Drought-tolerant rootstocks with better performance regarding water deficit is important for sustaining orchard productivity, especially in regions where water availability is unpredictable. By selecting appropriate rootstocks, fruit growers can mitigate the adverse effects of insufficient water on yields. However, the response of specific rootstocks to drought remains unknown. Our study examined the drought tolerance of five plum rootstocks (Wavit, Torinell, Adesoto, Penta, and St. Julien) focusing on their physiological and biochemical responses. To assess their tolerance under drought conditions, we evaluated leaf relative water content (RWC), chlorophyll fluorescence, lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), proline, and phenolic content. The results showed that Torinel exhibited the highest performance index (PIABS), maximum PSII photochemical efficiency (F_v/F_m), RWC, lowest lipid peroxidation and H₂O₂ during the drought-stress condition. Based on our results, we identified Torinel as a rootstock with a great ability to withstand drought, suggesting that it could be applied in the breeding program to increase plum resistance to drought. The study provides insights into the drought tolerance of different plum rootstocks, identifying which ones are better suited for cultivation in water-limited environments.

Although the effects of fertiliser addition and liming on semi-natural grassland productivity and biomass quality are well documented, less is known about how fertilisers change plant functional groups and mean ecological values. We researched the effects of liming (no lime and lime with 1 t/ha) and mineral fertilisers (control – no fertilisers, PK-P60K60, N20PK-N20P60K60, N80PK-N80P60K60, and N140PK-N140P60K60) for nine years on the Danthonia alpina Vest. grassland community. Based on Brown-Blanquet cover abundance, we calculated Shannon-Wiener evenness and abundance of plant functional groups (based on height, canopy structure, storage organs presence and flowering duration). We also researched Landolt’s ecological indicator values for nutrients, moisture, reaction, light, and temperature. Results revealed that fertilisers stimulated tall species with longer flowering duration. Shannon-Wiener evenness in control was 0.45, and N20PK increased to 0.71 but significantly decreased in treatment N140PK (0.25). Mean Landolt ecological value for nutrients and moisture increased while temperature dropped. The coverage of legumes and Landolt indicator value for nutrients increased because of the lime application, while the lime had no effect on Shannon-Wiener evenness and abundance of functional groups. Greater Shannon-Wiener evenness in treatments of PK and N20PK is a prerequisite for resistance to the effects of extreme climate events.

Rice serves as a crucial staple food for nearly half of the world’s population. However, rice paddies contribute remarkably to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Prior studies often showed a trade-off between reducing GHG emissions and impairing rice yield. In this study, we explore the possibility of employing modulating probiotics to develop a win-win strategy for enhancing rice yields while reducing GHG emissions. Three paired plots of rice paddies were used in the field experiment during the spring growing season (from February to July 2022). Each pair of plots was divided into control and probiotic addition paddies to investigate the effects of modulating probiotic treatment on GHG emissions using the whole-plant chambers. Our results revealed notable reductions in GHG emissions and increases in rice yield with the probiotic treatment relative to the control. The probiotic treatment resulted in a 47.58% reduction in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, a 21.53% reduction in methane (CH₄) emissions, and an impressive 88.50% reduction in nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions over the growing season. We also observed a 27.75% increase in rice yield with the probiotic treatment. These findings suggest that employing modulating probiotics has the potential to pave the way for mutually beneficial outcomes, enhancing rice productivity while mitigating the GHG emissions associated with rice cultivation.