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Using biostimulants to enhance plant growth and increase yield and secondary metabolites in medicinal and aromatic plants is an important strategy to achieve sustainable agriculture. The influence of two strains of nitrogen-fixing rhizobacteria (NFB) of Azotobacter chroococcum (NFB1) and Azospirillum lipoferum (NFB2), three levels of seaweed extract (SWE; 0 (SWE1), 250 (SWE1), and 500 mg/L (SWE2)) and their interactions have been investigated on Trachyspermum ammi L. (ajwain) growth, fruit yield, and essential oil constituents for two winter seasons. Growth traits (plant height, number of branches, and fresh and dry weights) and fruit traits (umbel number, 1 000-fruit weight, and fruit yield) were improved following NFB and/or SWE applications. Leaf pigments, total phenols, carbohydrates, free amino acids, and nutrient content were also enhanced. Ajwain plants that received NFB2 soil inoculation and foliarly sprayed with SWE1 observed the highest growth and yield values. Applying this treatment resulted in 27.6% and 32.7% higher fruit yield per plant for the first and second seasons, respectively, compared to the control. The results of GC-MS revealed that γ-terpinene, p-cymene, and thymol are the major components in ajwain essential oil. All applications used changed the percentages of the main components detected in ajwain essential oil. For instance, increasing SWE level caused a reduction in γ-terpinene with an increase in thymol content. The highest conservation rate from γ-terpinene to thymol was detected in NFB2 × SWE1-treated plants, with the highest thymol content and least γ-terpinene. Azospirillum lipoferum soil inoculation with SWE1 foliar application is recommended to enhance ajwain production, in terms of fruit yield and oil quality.

The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological characteristics and quality of hypocotyls in the production of selenium-enriched sprouts from peanut seeds soaked in selenium (Se) solution. Peanut seeds were soaked with 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10 μmol/L Na₂SeO₃ for 12 h and then germinated. The results showed that the selenium concentration in peanut shoots increased with increasing levels of selenite soaking, and there existed a crossroads of selenite soaking concentration (5.0 μmol/L) when selenium concentrations in cotyledons and hypocotyls were equal. Below and above this concentration, Se concentrations in shoots were radicle > cotyledon > hypocotyl or cotyledon > radicle > hypocotyl, respectively. In addition, Se significantly promoted the elongation of hypocotyls and radicles, increased shoot biomass, increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the concentration of antioxidants in hypocotyls, and decreased malondialdehyde levels. Moreover, Se significantly increased the concentrations of soluble sugars, proteins, free amino acids and resveratrol in hypocotyls. These results indicate that soaking peanut seeds with selenite significantly increased Se concentration, biomass, antioxidant capacity and quality of peanut shoots. This study provides a theoretical basis for the rapid and standardised production of Se-enriched peanut shoots from selenite-soaked seeds.

Drunken horse grass (Achnatherum inebrians (Hance) Keng) is a toxic perennial bunchgrass native to Northwestern China. Epichloë endophytic fungi infection could enhance the stress tolerance of drunken horse grass. However, there is a scarcity of literature regarding the effects of intraspecific competition. As a result, we anticipated that the intraspecific competitive dynamics between endophyte-infected (EI) and endophyte-free (EF) plants would become more transparent for four years by planted as the proportions of 2 : 1, 1 : 1, and 1 : 2. The results showed the EI plants exhibited more biomass, seed yields, and survival rates than EF plants. Endophyte infection also facilitated a competitive advantage by enhancing photosynthesis and soil nutrition. Our findings constituted the inaugural investigation into the influence of the intraspecific competitive ability of grass infected with Epichloë endophyte fungi. EI plants caused them to become stronger and stronger, while EF became weaker and weaker by timing and planting proportion increasing, and EF drunken horse grass could be replaced by EI. These conclusions were instrumental in elucidating why the endophytic fungal infection rate of drunken horse grass is 100% observed in natural wilderness. Epichloë endophyte could reduce plant diversity and enhance the dominance of EI plants in intraspecific competition; drunken horse grass may be threatening the persistence of native plant species.

Drought is a major abiotic stress limiting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) productivity. We evaluated 17 spring barley genotypes at the early leaf development stage under controlled laboratory conditions with optimal and drought treatments, integrating physiological, biochemical, and molecular traits. Drought reduced relative water content (–1.3% to –3.2%), plant height (–14.7% to –29.6%), and dry biomass (–2.3% to –24.9%), while inducing strong proline accumulation (+23.6% to +454%) and pigment loss (chlorophyll a –10.1% to –79.5%; carotenoids –6.2% to –70.9%). Principal component and discriminant analyses identified plant height and chlorophyll a as the most reliable discriminators, whereas relative water content was less predictive of the species. Multivariate stratification separated tolerant (Argument, Exalis, Slaven, Malz, Valis), intermediate (Laudis 550, Tango, Kompakt, LG Belcanto, SK Levitus), and sensitive (Kangoo, LG Tosca, LG Flamenco, Karmel, Bojos, Nitran, Tadmor) groups of genotypes. Gene expression profiling of 12 genotypes revealed a modest induction of HvABF2 (1.77-fold), moderate upregulation of HvSOD1 (1.82-fold) and HvAPX1 (2.28-fold), and the strongest response in HvP5CS (3.29-fold), which did not consistently correlate with tolerance. Tolerant genotypes combined growth stability, pigment retention, and moderate osmotic adjustment, whereas sensitive genotypes relied on excessive proline accumulation, resulting in severe pigment and growth penalties. Overall, drought tolerance in barley at the early growth stage emerged from the coordinated regulation of growth, photoprotection, and stress-gene activation, providing a foundation that can guide the selection of genotypes for subsequent validation under field conditions and future breeding programmes.

The aim of this trial was to verify the influence of various autumn-applied nitrogen fertilisers on the growth, yield and quality of winter oilseed rape. In the three years, small-plot field trials were carried out at the Research Station Červený Újezd (50.0697044N, 14.1659086E). The hybrid cultivar DK Exstorm was chosen, with a sowing rate of 50 seeds/m2. Five fertilisation regimes were tested: (1) nitrogen-free control; (2) CAN (calcium ammonium nitrate); (3) ANU (ammonium nitrate urea); (4) U (urea), and (5) US (urea with N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric acid triamide (NBPT) inhibitor). A uniform dose of 40 kg N/ha was applied at the end of October. Fertilisers U (leaf length, root collar diameter, leaf and root dry weight) and US (number of leaves and root length) had the best growth outcomes. The highest seed yields were obtained with US (5.83 t/ha) and ANU (5.82 t/ha) applications, which outperformed the unfertilised control by 0.65 and 0.64 t/ha, respectively. CAN fertiliser appears to be unsuitable for autumn fertilisation in terms of yield. There were no statistically significant differences in oil content (%) or thousand seed weight (g) between the treatments in any of the experimental years.

In the present study, free amino acid (AA) regulation in the arsenic (As) hyperaccumulating ferns was evaluated in a pot experiment to determine the relationship between As stress and the characteristic change in metabolism of AAs. The ferns Pteris cretica cv. Albo-lineata (Pc-Al) and cv. Parkerii (Pc-Pa) were exposed to As treatments at 0, 20, 100, and 250 mg As/kg for 90 days. Greater As content, as well as higher biomass production, were identified in Pc-Al compared with Pc-Pa. Ferns showed changes in the stress metabolism of free AA homeostasis. These results indicate a disturbance in nitrogen metabolism and depletion of pool assimilated carbon metabolism. In the fronds and roots, Pc-Pa accumulated higher amounts of free AAs than Pc-Al. The total free AA content, as well as the ratio of the main AA family pathway (glutamate family), were increased by the accumulation of toxic As in the ferns. Results suggest that Pc-Al tolerates higher As doses better due to changes in AA biosynthesis; however, at higher As doses, Pc-Pa upregulated AA biosynthesis due to As toxicity. The most abundant free AAs of ferns was glutamine, which was enhanced by As. Furthermore, the ratios of selected individual free AAs revealed a characteristic phenotype difference between ferns.

The impact of exogenously applied glycine betaine (GB; 0, 5, 10, 20 and 50 mmol) was evaluated in preventing Vigna radiata from the adverse effects of salt (100 mmol NaCl) stress. Salinity reduced growth parameters, such as plant height and fresh and dry weight of plants, while GB application significantly alleviated the decline. Salinity stress led to a decline in total chlorophylls and carotenoids, as well as a reduction in the net photosynthetic rate and gas exchange attributes, including stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, and intercellular CO₂. However, GB supplementation significantly alleviated this decline. Salinity stress increased the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, superoxide and methylglyoxal, while as applied GB reduced their accumulation, causing a significant decline in the lipid peroxidation. Application of GB, at all concentrations, increased the activity of the antioxidant enzymes under normal and salinity stress treatments with 10 and 20 mmol concentrations, imparting the highest increase. Increase in the radical scavenging activity due to GB application was also supported by increased total antioxidant activity assays measured as percent DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging. In addition, GB-supplemented plants exhibited an apparent increase in the activities of glyoxalase I and glyoxalase II enzymes. Accumulation of osmotic compounds like proline, sugars and GB increased significantly due to GB application and showed a further increase in salt-stressed plants. More importantly, the GB-treated plants exhibited a considerable decline in sodium accumulation, causing a decline Na/K in them. Glycine betaine was effective in mitigating the deleterious effects of salinity.

Suaeda schimperi, a halophyte native to the Red Sea’s hyper-arid salt marshes, thrives in its extreme conditions (high salinity, minimal rainfall, and elevated temperatures). However, its adaptive tolerance mechanisms to these harsh conditions remain unclear. Herein, we investigated its growth responses and physiological mechanisms after short (5 days after treatment; DAT) and long-term (15 DAT) exposure to 0, 100, 200, and 400 mmol NaCl. Moderate salinity (200 mmol NaCl) enhanced growth, inducing 103.2% (5 DAT) and 40% (15 DAT) higher leaf biomass and 43.33% and 59.6% higher root biomass, respectively, compared to non-saline conditions. Deviation from moderate salinity reduced growth and disrupted ion balance, lowering K⁺, raising Na⁺, and increasing the Na⁺/K⁺ ratio, particularly under high salinity. The moderate salinity-enhanced growth was associated with increased chlorophyll, glycine betaine, glutathione, betacyanin, and betaxanthin, as well as higher antioxidant enzyme activity (polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, catalase, ascorbate, and peroxidase) at 5 DAT. At 15 DAT, sugar accumulation and unsaturated fatty acids increased, while malondialdehyde and saturated fatty acids decreased. These findings reveal multiple adaptive strategies that support S. schimperi’s physiological stability under extreme environments and highlight its significance in ecological restoration and breeding salt-tolerant crops under escalating soil salinisation and climate change.

The multifaceted nature of agricultural management and environmental factors complicates the production of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). This study evaluated 25 varieties (21 hybrids and four populations) in three growing seasons (2020/21, 2021/22 and 2022/23) in Poland. The focus was on yield, fat content, and resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The analyses revealed significant variability among the varieties, with the hybrids performing better consistently in terms of yield and fat content. The level of resistance to Sclerotinia was similar in hybrid and population varieties. Furthermore, DK Excited was found to be the highest-yielding variety, while Duke had the highest fat content. Derrick was the most resistant to S. sclerotiorum. Advocat and Dynamic were identified as the best varieties. In the analysed series of field trials, yield was found to be affected by high temperatures and a lack of rainfall in March, June, and July. For fat content, a lack of rainfall in July was the main limiting factor.

This study investigated how wheat (C3) and maize (C4) respond to soil thallium (Tl) contamination and elevated CO₂ (eCO₂), aiming to understand strategies for mitigating oxidative stress. Under eCO₂, both crops showed higher biomass production. However, high Tl concentration (120 mg/kg) significantly decreased fresh and dry weights by 31–59%, which translated directly to compromised yield. This growth decline is linked to impaired photosynthesis, evidenced by a 54–57% drop in net photosynthetic rate under elevated Tl. Such photosynthetic inhibition intensifies oxidative stress, marked by increased membrane damage and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Furthermore, photorespiration contributed to oxidative stress by generating H₂O₂, with increased activities of glycolate oxidase and hydroxypyruvate reductase rising by 122% and 201%, in wheat and by 179% and 39% in maize, respectively, in response to 120 mg/kg TI under eCO₂ conditions. Simultaneously, to mitigate oxidative damage, antioxidant defences were significantly enhanced, resulting in increased activity of the ascorbate (ASC)/glutathione (GSH) cycle, along with elevated levels of metallothionein and phytochelatin for Tl sequestration, as well as augmented glutathione S-transferase activity. Overall, findings reveal complex interactions between CO₂ and Tl, highlighting species-specific adaptive responses of C3 and C4 plants. C3 plants use photorespiration to combat oxidative stress, while C3 and C4 plants have strong antioxidant systems to reduce the effects of oxidative stress, promoting crop resilience and growth despite Tl toxicity.

Water deficit is one of the most important abiotic factors limiting crop yields. To better understand the link between carbohydrate balance and drought stress response in strawberry plants (Fragaria vesca), we monitored by liquid chromatography the carbohydrate status in leaves during exposure to drought of different duration and intensity as well as subsequent recovery. In two greenhouse experiments that differed in the rate of reaching the target water deficit, strawberry leaves showed osmotic adjustment, with gradual increases in glucose and fructose content, likely provided by observed starch degradation. At the point of the most severe stress, proline content increased, while stress markers, such as malondialdehyde content and chlorophyll fluorescence, showed no significant changes. It indicates the defence mechanisms’ ability to protect cellular structures effectively. Strawberry, a member of the Rosaceae family, motivated us to investigate the role of sorbitol in the stress response. However, we found no sorbitol in any stress or control situations. Finally, testing sorbitol’s ability to support strawberry plant or non-green callus growth in vitro did not indicate that sorbitol could be used as a carbon and energy source. In conclusion, strawberries exhibit marked changes in soluble carbohydrate and starch content as an efficient defence against drought, without apparent involvement of sorbitol.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of exogenous 2, 4-epibrassinolide (EBR) on the yield of Tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn.). A 2-year field experiment was conducted on Tartary buckwheat (cv. Jinqiao 2) with different concentrations (0, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/L) of EBR and brassinolide (BRZ, inhibitor of brassinolide synthesis). The seed setting rate, agronomic traits, and yield initially increased and then decreased with an increase in the EBR application rate. The seed setting rate, agronomic traits, and yield decreased gradually with an increase in BRZ concentration, and yield was the lowest at 2.0 mg/L. The appropriate application of exogenous EBR could promote the increase of Tartary buckwheat yield. Compared with 0 mg/L (control), the 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/L treatments increased yield by 13.53, 32.73, and 7.08%, respectively, while the high-concentration treatment (2.0 mg/L) decreased by 4.13%. In conclusion, the appropriate concentration of EBR treatment (0.5 mg/L) delayed the senescence of Tartary buckwheat by increasing its root activity and the activity of antioxidant enzymes in leaves. Simultaneously, it increased the chlorophyll content of Tartary buckwheat leaves, enhanced photosynthesis, increased nonstructural carbohydrate content, and augmented the "source," increasing the seed setting rate and yield of Tartary buckwheat. This concentration is recommended for use in the production of Tartary buckwheat.

Nanotechnology plays a vital role in enhancing plant tolerance to salt stress; however, comparative studies on zinc oxide bulk particles (ZnO bulk) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in this context remain unexplored. Since zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient involved in enzyme activation, photosynthesis, and antioxidant responses, it is important to understand how ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs influence chickpea growth under salt stress. This study investigated the morphological and physiological responses of chickpea seedlings treated with ZnO bulk (50 mg/L) and ZnO NPs (50 mg/L) under varying salt concentrations (20, 40, 80, and 120 mmol/L). Salt stress significantly inhibited chickpea growth, reducing the relative growth rate, net assimilation rate, total chlorophyll content, and potassium (K) and zinc ion levels while increasing sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), malondialdehyde (MDA), and proline content. However, the application of ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs improved these parameters, mitigating the negative effects of salt stress. Furthermore, exogenous ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs to salt-stressed (20, 40, 80, and 120 mmol/L) chickpea resulted in decreased malondialdehyde content by 30, 32, 47, 34%, and 58, 31, 48, 47%, proline content by 4, 6, 1.6, 4% and 22, 21, 22, 28%, respectively, in comparison to the control. Notably, ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. These findings suggest that foliar application of ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs helps alleviate salt stress in chickpeas, promoting better growth and physiological performance under saline conditions.

Developing and employing new, sustainable, and eco-friendly biostimulants that enhance plant growth and alleviate the harmful effects of environmental challenges is a major focus for many researchers. Salt stress is a critical constraint on plant growth and a limiting factor in crop productivity, particularly during the early developmental stages in the nurseries. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (Java plum) is an important fruit tree and widely cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. This study was designed to develop Cassia javanica subsp. nodosa leaf extract (CLE) as a new sustainable and eco-friendly biostimulant capable of triggering the metabolic adaptation to salt stress in Java plum seedlings grown in nurseries. CLE successfully mitigated reductions in growth, biomass yield, and secondary metabolite production caused by salinity. Although salt stress depressed morphological characters and biomass yield, CLE foliar spray enhanced these parameters. Moreover, CLE enhanced the ferric reducing antioxidant potential, catalase, and superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, increased phenolic content, and reduced hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) accumulation and lipid peroxidation. Additionally, CLE application increased seedling biomass and stimulated antioxidant activity, osmoprotectant accumulation, and overall tolerance to salinity stress. These observations provide new insights into CLE’s potential as an eco-friendly biostimulant for enhancing salt tolerance in Java plum seedlings.

Cold stress significantly impacts sesame during its early growth stages, with varying responses observed among different genotypes. Ten genotypes were evaluated for phenotypic response to various temperatures during germination. Cold stress at 10, 12, 14, and 16 °C inhibited germination, with zero germination at 10 °C. At 14 °C, genotypes showed significant germination variation, and it was selected as the threshold temperature for assessing cold tolerance in sesame. Four genotypes were grouped into two, and each group with extreme germination responses (high and low) were selected for further biochemical and physiological studies. Genotypes V5 and V7 exhibited higher cold tolerance, better germination percentage, and seedling parameters under low temperatures, while V8 and V9 showed significant reductions, indicating cold sensitivity. Biochemical analyses revealed that cold-tolerant genotypes had enhanced activities of antioxidant enzymes, including catalase, superoxide dismutase, and peroxidase, as well as higher proline accumulation compared to sensitive genotypes. These antioxidants played a crucial role in mitigating the oxidative stress induced by cold, as evidenced by lower levels of hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde in the tolerant genotypes. Cold-tolerant genotypes also accumulated higher soluble sugars and protein levels, contributing to osmotic regulation and membrane stability. The findings highlight the importance of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants in cold stress tolerance, suggesting these biochemical markers could be used to identify and develop cold-resistant sesame cultivars. The results offer valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying cold tolerance and provide a foundation for breeding efforts to improve sesame cold resistance.

Water deficit severely constrains sugar beet productivity by impairing photosynthetic capacity. However, the underlying structure-function mechanisms conferring photosynthetic resilience remain poorly characterised. This study investigates the temporal dynamics of photosynthetic limitations and structural adaptations in sugar beet during water deficit and subsequent rehydration. We found that water deficit significantly reduced the maximum net CO₂ assimilation rate (A_Nmax) and the Rubisco carboxylation rate (V_cmax) by impairing CO₂ diffusion and biochemical processes. The reduction in photosynthetic capacity is primarily and stably attributed to mesophyll limitation, while contributions from stomatal and biochemical limitations flexibly change with deficit degree and rehydration. Severe water deficit caused irreversible structural damage that hinders recovery even after rehydration, while moderate water deficit allows partial restoration of leaf and chloroplast function. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) demonstrated that CO₂ diffusion was governed by the volume fraction of intercellular air space (f_ias, β = 0.28) and surface areas of the chloroplasts exposed to leaf intercellular air spaces (S_c/S, β = 0.35), with S_c/S indirectly influencing mesophyll conductance (g_m) through fias mediation (β = 0.53). Severe water deficit caused irreversible fias reduction and chloroplast interface damage (59% cell volume loss). These findings establish that resilience to water deficit in sugar beet depends on mesophyll structural integrity, with f_ias and S_c/S as key modulators of gm recovery. The study advances understanding of stress recovery mechanisms in sugar beet and provides a framework for multiscale crop improvement in the context of climate change.

Standard roses are a widely used ornamental plant in urban landscapes, valued for their attractive flowers and adaptability to various environmental conditions. This study investigated how different substrate types affect the growth and development of standard roses and their potential to improve the ecology of urban landscapes. Nine substrate conditions (rotted corn stover, decomposed shiitake mushroom residue, perlite, and combinations) were compared with field soil as a control treatment. The physical and chemical characteristics of each substrate were analysed, and the growth and development of standard rose plants were observed over six months. The results indicated that the substrate T4 (70% rotted corn stover, 15% decomposed shiitake mushroom residue, 15% perlite) achieved the highest evaluation index, leading to superior plant growth compared to other substrates. This combination provided optimal water retention, aeration, and nutrient supply, making it the most effective substrate for cultivating standard roses. Additionally, the use of these substrates can improve soil quality and reduce environmental pollution, offering a sustainable option for urban landscape management.

Carbohydrate digestive enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase can be used to treat and manage diabetes. By inhibiting these enzymes, carbohydrate digestion slowed down, lowering the level of glucose entry into the bloodstream and preventing postprandial hyperglycemia. However, the effectiveness of current antidiabetic agents is limited due to their adverse effects. Therefore, the current study explored natural inhibitors from the methanol extract of rice to combat this issue. Through an integrated approach, four different rice cultivars were analysed and found that red rice methanol extract compounds stigmasterol and 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid interacted with α-amylase and α-glucosidase. Additionally, further research on stigmasterol directs the structure-activity relationship studies that aid in managing diabetic conditions.

Abiotic stressors are the main barriers to successful crop production in this era. The balance of redox and metabolic activities in plants is negatively impacted by abiotic stresses, which ultimately limit the plants’ capacity to grow and develop. The phytohormones are tiny molecules that control how plants grow and develop, as well as how they react to alterations in their environment. Phytohormone, gibberellic acid (GA) has been proven in a number of recent research to increase plants’ ability to withstand abiotic stress. By regulating numerous physio-biochemical and molecular processes, GA plays a crucial part in reducing the perturbations caused by abiotic stresses in plants. Recent findings have shown that GA controls the activity of antioxidant enzymes, stress-responsive genes, photosynthetic machinery, and reduced oxidative damage. Besides, GA has been involved in cross-talk with other phytohormones to regulate abiotic stress in plants. This review summarises the current research on the application of GA and discusses how GA might support crop growth and production in adverse conditions. The interaction of GA with other phytohormones, potential mechanisms for reducing abiotic stress in plants, the disadvantages of employing GA, and its promise for the future are also covered in this review.

Salinity stress poses an increasing threat to global rice production, particularly under climate change. Enhancing salinity tolerance is crucial to sustain rice production and food security. This study aimed to assess genetic variation among rice parental genotypes and their derived crosses under salinity stress by evaluating physiological, biochemical, agronomic, and yield-related traits. Seven diverse rice genotypes were used to develop 21 crosses using a half-diallel mating design in the summer of 2023. The parental genotypes and their derived crosses were evaluated in the summer of 2024 under controlled greenhouse lysimeter conditions. Salinity stress was induced by irrigation with water containing 10.60 dS/m, and soil salinity was maintained at 9.60 dS/m through controlled irrigation and drainage. Twenty key traits were studied, including phenological and agronomic attributes, yield traits, and physiological and biochemical markers such as relative water content, leaf CO₂ assimilation, proline accumulation, malondialdehyde content, and antioxidant enzyme activities, to assess salinity tolerance in rice genotypes. The results demonstrated highly significant variation among the evaluated parental genotypes and their derived crosses across physiological, biochemical, agronomic, and yield-related traits, indicating considerable genetic variability in the studied plant materials. The genotypes C9, R8, and R6 were identified as superior combiners contributing favourable alleles for salinity tolerance. Eleven promising F1 crosses exhibited enhanced growth, improved antioxidant enzyme activities, osmotic adjustment, reduced oxidative damage, and higher grain yield under salinity stress. Exploiting these plant materials can improve the development of novel rice genotypes tolerant of salt-affected environments, addressing the current challenges posed by climate change. Strong associations were observed among physiological, biochemical, agronomic, and yield-related traits, indicating an integrated network of responses that collectively contribute to enhanced salinity tolerance in rice.

Antimony (Sb) pollution from industrial activities poses a severe global threat, particularly impacting valuable medicinal crops like linseed, which are highly sensitive to heavy metals. This study reveals the remarkable potential of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as a sustainable solution to this challenge. Our research demonstrates that while Sb stress significantly impairs linseed growth and photosynthesis, it also triggers oxidative damage. AMF improved photosynthetic performance and water status, and notably enhanced the biosynthesis of crucial phytochemicals like phenolics, flavonoids, and citric acid. These compounds are vital for both plant defence and human health. Furthermore, AMF promoted the accumulation of essential detoxifying agents, leading to a better redox balance and significantly reducing Sb uptake and translocation by 47%. This dual action not only bolsters the plant’s tolerance to Sb but also enhances its medicinal value by boosting health-promoting bioactive metabolites. These promising findings underscore AMF’s dual role: a powerful tool for phytoremediation and a natural enhancer of phytochemical quality. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi provide a sustainable, nature-inspired approach to safely cultivate medicinal plants in environments contaminated with heavy metals, underscoring the vital role of plant-microbe interactions in alleviating environmental stresses.

Salinity represents a significant abiotic stress that markedly influences plant growth through osmotic stress induction. Plants commonly undergo osmotic adaptation when subjected to prolonged periods of saline stress. The current experiments were conducted on five wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes with contrasting salt tolerance capacities – Mirbashir 128, Gobustan, Gyzyl bughda, Fatima, and Zirva 80 under salinity stress caused by 150 mmol NaCl. The relative water content and osmotic potential were found to decrease significantly in salinity-sensitive genotypes (Fatima and Zirva 80) compared to salinity-tolerant ones (Mirbashir 128, Gobustan, and Gyzyl bughda) when treated with 150 mmol NaCl. Salinity also caused the accumulation of soluble sugars and proline, the amounts of which were observed to be higher in salinity-tolerant genotypes than sensitive ones, while lipid peroxidation was higher in salinity-sensitive genotypes. In salinity-tolerant genotypes, 150 mmol NaCl caused increased antioxidant enzyme activities and accumulation of flavonoids, including anthocyanins, confirming the rapid development of the stress reactions in these plants. Differences in the osmoregulation indicators and antioxidant responses between salinity-tolerant and sensitive plants are assumed to be related to their salinity-tolerance traits. This investigation provides pivotal foundational insights for enhancing the salt tolerance of wheat genotypes, thereby potentially enhancing both yield and quality in diverse wheat cultivars thriving in saline environments.

Nitrogen fertiliser is a key determinant of rice yield and grain quality; however, the synergistic mechanisms through which nitrogen regulates root anatomical structure, physiological traits, and cooking quality in rice varieties with different eating properties remain unclear. In this study, a pot experiment was conducted using two moderate-eating-quality cultivars (Xudao 3 and Huageng 9) and two superior-eating-quality cultivars (Zhengdao C42 and Nangeng 9308) under four nitrogen levels (0, 0.59, 1.18, and 1.76 g/pot, designated as N0, N1, N2, and N3, respectively). Cooking quality was assessed by amylose content, gel consistency, and alkali spreading value. The results demonstrated that, with increasing nitrogen application, amylose content, alkali spreading value, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, root aerenchyma area, and aerenchyma proportion decreased initially, then increased, reaching their lowest values at the N2 level. In contrast, gel consistency, root antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, POD, CAT), photosynthetic rate and cortical living cell proportion increased first and then decreased, peaking at N2 treatment. Compared with moderate-eating-quality varieties, superior-eating-quality varieties exhibited significantly lower amylose content, alkali spreading value, MDA content, and aerenchyma proportion, but higher gel consistency, living cell proportion, stele-to-root diameter ratio, antioxidant enzyme activities, and photosynthetic rate. Correlation analysis revealed that root antioxidant enzyme activities, stele diameter and living cell proportion were negatively correlated with amylose content, but positively correlated with gel consistency. Conversely, MDA content, aerenchyma area and aerenchyma proportion showed opposite correlation patterns. These findings indicate that an appropriate nitrogen application rate (1.18 g/pot) enhances root physiological activity, optimises root anatomical structure, and ensures sufficient source supply to the grain sink, thereby synergistically improving cooking quality – an effect particularly pronounced in high-eating-quality rice varieties.

Hemp is becoming increasingly popular, and many new varieties are coming onto the market to meet the requirements of different industries. In this study, the seed and stem yield, seed nutritional properties and the biochemical characteristics of the inflorescences of seven European varieties (Fedora 17, Futura 75, KC Dóra, Monoica, Santhica 27, Tiborszallasi, USO 31) were investigated in a 3-year field trial. Futura 75 and Tiborszallasi stand out as varieties with the highest potential in the conditions of the experiment (humid continental climate with oceanic influences, heavy soil). Futura 75 achieved the highest seed yield (505 kg/ha dry matter), stem yield (8 036 kg/ha fresh matter), protein yield (140 kg/ha) and oil yield (181 kg/ha). There were no differences in protein content (average 21.0%) among varieties. The total unsaturated fatty acid content was as high as 87.6% at Tiborszallasi. The best ratio between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids was 3 : 1 in Tiborszallasi, which had also the highest oil content (30.2%), the highest total phenolic content (2.8 mg caffeic acid (CA)/g) and the best antioxidant potential (6.69 EC50 DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) mg/L). Most varieties had higher cannabidiol and tetrahydrocannabinol contents in the inflorescence at seed maturity (from 0.22 to 3.3 for cannabidiol (CBD) and from 0.00 to 0.32 for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)) compared to full flowering (from 0.17 to 4.33 for CBD and from 0.00 to 0.52 for THC, on average 2.64% for CBD and 0.19% for THC), presenting an opportunity for dual-purpose use.

Drought stress is one of the major threats to food security in the climate change scenario. Reducing the deleterious impacts of drought stress on the productivity of cereal crops is crucial. Hence, limited information has been available about the effect of the combined use of plant growth regulators and mineral fertilisers on promoting drought tolerance in maize seedlings. In this study, a pot experiment was carried out to evaluate the potential of sole or combined application of silicon (Si) and putrescine (Put) to mitigate the detrimental effects of drought on maize. The experimental treatments were, i.e. control (CK), water spray, 4.0 mmol Si, 0.5 mmol Put, and 4.0 mmol Si + 0.5 mmol Put on maize crop grown at two different water-holding capacity levels (80% well-water condition and 40% drought stress). The experiment was arranged in a complete randomised design with factorial arrangements having three replications. Exposure of maize plants to drought stress at the reproductive phase (VT-tasseling) reduced the photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a + b, relative water contents, leaf area, yield and yield attributes. However, foliar application of Si and Put individually and Si + Put dramatically reduced these negative effects by improving photosynthetic pigments, relative water contents, and activities of enzymatic antioxidant defence. Drought stress-induced lipid peroxidation in the form of more production of malondialdehyde content, hydrogen peroxide and electrolyte leakage significantly declined due to the combined application of Si and Put compared to the respective control. Drought stress boosted the activities of key enzymatic antioxidants (catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase) irrespective of the treatment application. Moreover, it was noted that the accumulation of osmolytes (proline and soluble protein) contents was increased by the combined application of Si and Put. Under drought stress conditions, combined foliar application of Si and Put considerably improved 22.70% cob length, 12.77% number of grains per cob, and 18.30% 100-grain weight, which ultimately enhanced maize’s 10.29% grain yield. From the current study’s findings, it was concluded that a combined foliar spray of silicon and putrescine at the reproductive phase is an effective strategy to enhance the maize yield in drought-prone areas.

The research was conducted in a long-term stationary experiment established on light grey forest surface-gleyed soil in 1965. Data presented in this study were collected during 2022–2024 growing seasons within the framework of this long-term experiment. The experiment is registered in the NAAS long-term field experiments registry (certificate No. 29) and the Global Long-Term Agricultural Experiments Network (GLTEN). The study examined the effect of growing red clover in a four-field crop rotation on nutrient balance at different fertiliser and lime doses and ratios. Red clover was used for feed and feed-green manure purposes. The research aimed to substantiate optimal methods of utilising this valuable forage crop and optimise fertilisation systems to ensure sustainable agricultural development. Growing the first cut of red clover for feed purposes and the second as green manure with fertilisation (N₁₀₅P₁₀₁K₁₀₁ + organic fertilisers + liming) ensures a positive surface balance of 402 kg/ha of nitrogen, 150 kg/ha of phosphorus, and 204 kg/ha of potassium. These data are almost twice higher than indicators under minimal fertilisation doses. Despite the reduction in symbiotic nitrogen fixation from 217 kg/ha to 147 kg/ha when growing red clover in crop rotation with intensive fertilisation, it remains an effective phytobiological ameliorant.

This study examined the impact of selenomethionine (SeMet) on the growth and physiological traits of Salvia miltiorrhiza seedlings. Application of SeMet significantly improved the photosynthetic performance by reducing stomatal limitation value (Ls) and increasing soil and plant analyser development (SPAD) value, net photosynthetic rate (P_n), transpiration rate (T_r), stomatal conductance (g_s) and water use efficiency (WUE), compared to the control. Furthermore, SeMet also improved the photosynthetic performance by reducing non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and increasing the actual photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (Y(II)), photochemical quenching (qP), maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (F_v/F_m) and apparent electron transport rate (ETR). Meanwhile, the findings indicated that SeMet was able to enhance the antioxidant capacity of S. miltiorrhiza seedlings by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), thereby reducing the contents of malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). Besides, SeMet notably impacted plant growth by promoting plant height, basal diameter and biomass. Among different concentrations, 60 mg/L exhibited the most favourable impact on photosynthetic performance, antioxidant capacity and the growth of S. miltiorrhiza seedlings. In summary, the appropriate dosage of SeMet can stimulate the growth of S. miltiorrhiza by enhancing photosynthetic and antioxidant capacities. These findings can serve as a solid theoretical foundation for the application of SeMet in the cultivation and production of S. miltiorrhiza.

Heavy metal stress inhibits plant growth, but this impact is less studied and pronounced under climate change conditions. The present study investigates the physiological, biochemical, and agronomic responses of wheat (C3) and maize (C4) exposed to varying thallium (Tl) stress (60 and 120 mg/kg) under ambient (aCO₂) and elevated (eCO₂, 710 µmol/mol) CO₂ levels. High Tl exposure markedly reduced grain yield by 58% in wheat and 68% in maize at 120 mg/kg under aCO₂. However, eCO₂ partially offset the negative effects, increasing yield by ~20% in wheat and 36% in maize at 60 mg/kg Tl. eCO₂ enhanced photosynthetic activity under eCO₂, which increased the accumulation of soluble sugars under TI stress. These provide carbon skeletons for the synthesis of primary metabolites such as amino acids, organic acids and fatty acids. Although total fatty acid content declined under stress, the metabolic crosstalk initiated by improved photosynthesis and sugar availability enables plants to maintain key fatty acids (such as palmitic, linolenic, and oleic acids) essential for membrane stability and function. Amino acids, especially proline and cysteine, accumulated significantly under Tl stress. These primary metabolites, in turn, feed into secondary metabolic pathways, promoting the formation of phenolic acids and flavonoids that enhance antioxidant defence and stress tolerance. This metabolic cascade explains eCO₂’s capacity to alleviate TI stress and improve crop performance, and underscores the value of leveraging eCO₂ environments to support agricultural productivity and food security under challenging conditions.

Soil salinisation is a major constraint on food security and agricultural development, and remains a critical concern in the agricultural sector. In this study, we examined the effects of three straw return methods – straw mulching, straw burial, and a combination of straw mulching and burial – along with inorganic amendments (CaSiO₃ and MgSO₄) on maize growth, soil organic matter, bulk density, salinity, and the contents of individual salt base ions. A 120-day planting experiment was conducted using soil columns and included maize cultivation under irrigation and drenching conditions. The combined treatments (straw return with Ca-Mg application) were more effective in reducing salinity and improving soil properties than straw return alone. Na⁺, K⁺, Cl^–, and HCO₃ contents, as well as soil bulk density, decreased by 45.99–48.43, 28.07–28.36, 20.91–24.17, 18.93–21.03, and 7.64–8.40%, respectively. Regarding crop growth promotion, compared with the single treatment, the combined application of straw return with Ca-Mg (PI, SPI) resulted in a 6.46–8.30% increase in superoxide dismutase activity, an 8.66–10.83% reduction in malondialdehyde content, a 12.71–22.70% increase in total root length, a 13.41–24.14% increase in root surface area, and a 12.46–19.02% increase in root volume. Taken together, integrating straw return with a calcium-magnesium mixture represents a promising strategy for improving the quality of coastal saline soils.

Seed priming is an effective seed treatment procedure and has been shown to improve the emergence of seedlings in various crops. However, there is a lack of systematic research for these techniques in lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), especially for combinations of priming agents. This study aimed to screen 22 biologically active compounds and then to evaluate the potential of combinations of these agents, assessing the dynamics of germination, seedling length, and performance, in a pot experiment for selected combinations. About half of the screened agents increased germination rate (on the 3^rd day) or seedling length (from 8% to 75%), where chitosan and green tea improved total germination and seedling formation. The selected combination of priming agents improved only seedling growth compared to hydropriming and control, where the combination of fermented weed juice + green tea and H₂O₂ + thyme infusion seems effective (+61%). In the pot experiment, only a combination of mixed priming with the coating method led to improved lucerne root growth (+33% compared to the untreated control). These results can contribute to the adoption of easily available, cost-effective, and sustainable treatments with the potential to accelerate germination and lucerne seedling development.