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Rice paddy fields serve as an important source of stable food supply and a notable contributor to atmospheric methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). Rice cultivar selection acts as a pivotal factor in regulating greenhouse gas (GHGs) of CH₄ and N₂O emissions from rice paddy fields. However, little is known about how different types of rice cultivars affect CH₄ and N₂O emissions. In the study, three types of rice cultivars, including Japonica-type Indica-Japonica hybrid rice (JHR: ZJY1578 and JHY5), Indica-type hybrid rice (IHR: ZZY8 and JFY2), and inbred rice (IR: J67 and XS121), were selected to evaluate differences in mitigating GHGs. Results showed that the total CH₄ and N₂O emissions of two Japonica-type Indica-Japonica hybrid rice cultivars were 49.81–60.01 kg/ha and 0.67–0.83 g/ha, respectively, which were lower than those of the other two rice cultivar types. The total equivalent of carbon dioxide emissions of CH₄ and N₂O (TCO₂-eq) of two Japonica hybrid rice significantly reduced by 16.7–46.9%, compared with the other two types of rice cultivars (IHR and IR). CH₄ contributed 85.5–89.9% to the GWP, while 65.6–80.4% in the field of planting inbred rice. The reduction in GHGs emissions is mainly attributed to yield, available carbon and nitrogen contents, root morphological characteristics, and functional genes. Consequently, GHGs emissions in paddy fields could be mitigated by selecting or breeding cultivars with high yield, lower root exudates, and greater root porosity.

In this study, the effects of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and humic acid (HA) chelate applied to soils contaminated with heavy metals on the development, antioxidant defence system, and phytoremediation of forage turnip (Brassica rapa L.) were investigated for the first. Three doses of EDTA (E1: 5 mmol/kg, E2: 10 mmol/kg, E3: 15 mmol/kg) and three doses of HA (HA1: 500 mg/kg, HA2: 1 000 mg/kg, HA3: 2 000 mg/kg) were applied to soils contaminated with heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Zn, and Cr) in the pot. According to experiment results, HA application as chelate to the polluted soil caused a significant increase in the growth of forage turnip. Phytoremediation values of the plant for Cd heavy metal were found to be BCFshoot, BCFroot > 1, and translocation factor > 1. This result proved that forage turnip has Cd accumulating properties. Also, HA application caused a decrease in H2O2 (46%) and malondialdehyde (6%) levels and antioxidative enzyme activity in polluted soil. It has been concluded that humic acid improves the oxidative stress conditions in the plant and is more effective in the development and growth of the plant than EDTA, so that it can be used effectively in phytoremediation studies.

Improved soil properties are commonly reported benefits of adding biochar to agriculture soils. To investigate the range of biochar's effects on soil chemical properties (e.g., soil pH, electrical conductivity (EC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total carbon (TC), and soil carbon-nitrogen ratio (C:N ratio)) in response to varied experimental conditions, a meta-analysis was conducted on previously published results. The results showed that the effect of biochar on soil chemical properties varied depending on management conditions, soil properties, biochar pyrolysis conditions, and biochar properties. The effect size (Hedges'd) of the biochar was greatest for SOC (0.50), the C:N ratio of soil (0.44), soil pH (0.39), TC (0.35), EC (0.21), and CEC (0.20). Among the various factors examined by aggregated boosted tree analysis, the effects of biochar on soil chemical properties were largely explained by the biochar application rate, initial soil pH, and soil sand content. In conclusion, our study suggests that improving soil chemical properties by adding biochar not only requires consideration of biochar application rates and chemical properties but also the local soil environmental factors, especially soil initial pH and sand content of the soil, should be considered.

The present study compares the six crop residue management techniques in main plots (since 2008) and three split nitrogen (N) levels, i.e., 75, 100 and 125 kg N/ha in subplots for rice crops for two years, i.e., 2019 and 2020, in sandy loam soil under field conditions. This experiment evaluated the long-term effect on rice productivity, soil organic carbon content and nutrient requirement in rice-wheat cropping system. The results revealed that different crop residue management practices and N levels significantly influenced rice growth, yield and yield attributes and improved nutrient uptake by grain and straw. Maximum grain yields of 20.8% and 17.8% higher over the conventional (no straw) treatment during 2019 and 2020, respectively, were recorded where the rice and wheat residue was retained or incorporated. The rice grain yield without residue responded significantly up to 125 kg N/ha. Whereas, with rice and wheat residue, rice grain yield did not respond to the application of N beyond 75 kg N/ha during both years.

In this study, a synergist made of itaconic acid, maleic acid, acrylic acid and other active ingredients polymerised was sprayed on the surface of nitrogen (N) fertiliser particles to make synergistic nitrogen fertilisers (SNF). To explore the effect of SNF on N metabolism of wheat in saline-alkaline land, five treatments were set up: CK – ordinary N fertiliser (299.86 kg N/ha); T1 – SNF (299.86 kg N/ha); T2 – SNF (239.89 kg N/ha); T3 – SNF (179.92 kg N/ha); T4 – SNF (119.94 kg N/ha). The aboveground dry weight of wheat, the photosynthetic characteristics of wheat flag leaves, the activity of the N metabolism enzyme of wheat flag leaves, the expression of N transporter-related genes in wheat roots, and the N accumulation and transport of plants were determined. The results showed that the T1 treatment performed the best. During the two years, the N translocation from stems and leaves to spikes of plants at maturity in T1 was 33.18–45.55% higher than that of CK. The N content of wheat spikes was 12.01–12.66% higher than that of CK. The activities of nitrate reductase, glutamine synthetase, glutamate synthetase and the expression of nitrate transporter gene TaNRT1.1 and ammonium transporter gene TaAMT1.1 were significantly higher than that of CK. The aboveground dry weight of wheat and photosynthetic characteristics of flag leaves were significantly higher than those of CK in T1, whereas the intercellular CO2 concentration was significantly lower than that of CK. The application of SNF positively affected N accumulation and transport in wheat, wheat yield, and fertiliser utilisation, as well as reduced N loss in saline-alkaline land.

This study investigated the potential risks of cadmium (Cd) toxicity in buffaloes grazing on forages that were cultivated in soils irrigated by various sources of wastewater. The absorption of trace metals (TM) by plants and their subsequent entry into the food chain pose a significant danger to grazing animals through the accumulation of contaminated fodder. The mean concentration of Cd in the water ranged from 0.18–1.78 mg/L, in the soil 0.63 to 1.87 mg/kg, in the forage 0.20 to 1.32 mg/kg, and in the blood 0.26 to 1.98 mg/L. Among all three sites, canal water (CW Site I), groundwater (GW Site II), and sewage water (SW Site III), the concentration factor (CF) values were below the threshold of 1 (CF < 1), indicating the nominal environmental concern regarding Cd contents in the soil-plant interface. In addition, a prominent variation was noticed in the transfer factor (TF) of Cd across different sites, with the highest TF observed in Avena sativa L. at SW Site III (0.8) and the lowest in Pennisetum glaucum L. at CW Site I (0.27). Furthermore, the hazard quotient (HQ) exhibited a substantial fluctuation, ranging from 0.39 to 2.6, reflecting varying levels of potential health risks associated with Cd exposure. The outcomes of the current investigation suggested that the prominent increase in Cd levels was recorded at sampling site SW Site III due to continuous wastewater irrigation. Prolonged exposure and increased Cd absorption in buffaloes grazing at these sites could have harmful long-term effects on their health. The correlation analysis between Cd concentrations in water, soil, forage, and blood showed a positive but non-significant relationship for water-soil, soil-forage, and forage-blood interactions. This highlights the need for further research to assess the long-term implications of wastewater irrigation on heavy metal accumulation in livestock.

A three-year field experiment was carried out to investigate the methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions and calculate the global warming potential (GWP) according to all energy input in response to the nitrogen (N) rate in the typical rice-wheat rotation system in Jiangsu, China. Four N treatments, including R220W180 (local practice), R220W140 (cutting 10% total N in wheat season), R180W180 (cutting 10% total N in rice season) and R180W140 (cutting 20% total N in rice and wheat seasons separately), were designed in the study. Results showed that annual CH₄ emission was decreased by 25.7% in response to cutting 20% N, which was ascribed to the 24.6% reduction of CH₄ emission in rice season (P < 0.05) compared to local practice. The mitigation of N₂O emissions in R220W140 and R180R180 treatments contributed to the 8.5% and 15.7% decrease in annual N₂O emission, which was the 23.5% decrease in cutting 20% N treatment compared to local practice, respectively. Specifically, under the same amount of N rate condition (10% N cutting), the transfer N from rice season (R220W140) to wheat season (R180W180) led to the 8.5% increase in N₂O emission (P < 0.05). In the end, the cutting of 20% N decreased GWP and yield-scale GWP by 19% and 17%, which mainly originated from CH₄ and N₂O emissions. However, cutting N did not significantly decrease grain yield (P > 0.05). These results suggested that the 180 kg N/ha for rice and 140 kg N/ha for wheat in one rotation season were the beneficial N rate to achieve the co-benefit of yield and GWP in the typical rice-wheat rotation system in Jiangsu, China.

Maintaining nitrogen (N) balance and inhibiting N leaching loss in the soil-crop system is crucial to maintaining yield and reducing the environmental pollution. This study investigated the effects of soil NO₃^--N content and accumulation, eggplant yield, N leaching and balance response to biochar addition, including regular fertilisation and irrigation (W + F), biochar addition with regular fertilisation and irrigation (W + F + B), and biochar addition with 20% fertilisation and irrigation reduction (0.8W + 0.8F + B) treatments. Compared with W + F, W + F + B and 0.8W + 0.8F + B increased soil NO₃^--N content in 0-40 cm and soil NO₃^--N accumulation in 0-20 cm, and raised harvest index, N surplus and balance. Simultaneously, 0.8W + 0.8F + B compared to W + F enhanced N use efficiency and N partial factor productivity, conversely, it decreased N dry matter production efficiency, N surplus and balance. Stepwise regression analysis demonstrated that the effect of NO₃^--N leaching lasted in 60 cm under biochar addition in the first year, and lasted in 20 cm without biochar application in the next year. Altogether, biochar addition with 20% fertilisation and irrigation reduction is the most suitable management strategy to decrease N surplus and leaching, and maintain eggplant N uptake in a two-year cycle system on greenhouse vegetables in Mollisols.

Abiotic stressors are the main barriers to successful crop production in this era. The balance of redox and metabolic activities in plants is negatively impacted by abiotic stresses, which ultimately limit the plants’ capacity to grow and develop. The phytohormones are tiny molecules that control how plants grow and develop, as well as how they react to alterations in their environment. Phytohormone, gibberellic acid (GA) has been proven in a number of recent research to increase plants’ ability to withstand abiotic stress. By regulating numerous physio-biochemical and molecular processes, GA plays a crucial part in reducing the perturbations caused by abiotic stresses in plants. Recent findings have shown that GA controls the activity of antioxidant enzymes, stress-responsive genes, photosynthetic machinery, and reduced oxidative damage. Besides, GA has been involved in cross-talk with other phytohormones to regulate abiotic stress in plants. This review summarises the current research on the application of GA and discusses how GA might support crop growth and production in adverse conditions. The interaction of GA with other phytohormones, potential mechanisms for reducing abiotic stress in plants, the disadvantages of employing GA, and its promise for the future are also covered in this review.

A pot experiment was carried out to determine the effect of Serendipita indica on the salt response of Lolium multiflorum Lam. Although the salinity decreased the root colonisation of S. indica by 28.34%, successful colonisation of S. indica increased the seed germination rate, fresh weight, leaf relative water content and chlorophyll content by 28.09, 59.01, 38.78 and 28.80%, respectively, compared with uncolonised seedlings. Under salinity, leaf malondialdehyde content, leaf relative electrical conductivity, as well as Na+ content and Na⁺/K⁺ ratio in leaves and roots of S. indica-colonised seedlings were decreased by 33.99, 33.31, 63.40% and 47.42, 85.66 and 55.88%, respectively, compared with uncolonised seedlings. Meanwhile, compared with uncolonised seedlings under salinity, the contents of proline in leaves, N, P and K⁺ in leaves and roots of the S. indica-colonised seedlings were increased by 47.47, 45.69 and 30.05%, and 41.77, 19.51, 19.18 and 155.00%, respectively. These results indicate that S. indica colonisation confers salt tolerance in L. multiflorum seedlings by enhancing osmotic adjustment via actively accumulating proline and K⁺, increasing the uptake of nutrients such as N and P, and improving Na⁺/K⁺ homoeostasis. The study would provide a new idea for the combined application of salt-tolerant plants and symbiotic microorganisms in the ecological restoration of saline-alkali lands.

The grain filling and physiological traits of different phosphorus-tolerant rice cultivars and phosphorus fertiliser rates have not been fully studied. A pot-growth experiment with cv. Lianjing 7 (weak phosphorus tolerance) and cv. Yongyou 2640 (strong phosphorus tolerance) was conducted using four phosphorus rates, namely, 0 (P0), 0.44 (P1), 0.88 (P2), and 1.32 g/pot (P3). Results indicated that grain yield, net photosynthetic rate, soil and plant analyser development (SPAD) value, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activity in leaves, and adenosine diphosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) and sucrose synthase (SuSase) activity in grains increased and then decreased with increasing phosphorus fertiliser rate, whereas malondialdehyde (MDA) content in leaves decreased first and then increased. The above indexes of cv. Lianjing 7 and cv. Yongyou 2640 were optimal at P2 and P1 treatments, respectively. The grain yield, net photosynthetic rate, SPAD value, AGPase content, SuSase content in grains, and SOD and CAT activity in the leaves of cv. Yongyou 2640 were higher, whereas the MDA content was lower than those of cv. Lianjing 7. Correlation analysis showed that AGPase and SuSase activity in superior and inferior grains, photosynthetic rate, and SOD and CAT activity in the leaves were significant or highly significantly positively correlated with grain-filling rate and rice yield. Therefore, the adoption of appropriate phosphorus fertiliser rates can increase the activity of enzymes related to starch synthesis in different phosphorus-tolerant rice, enhance antioxidant systems in leaves at the filling stage, reduce leaf MDA content, and delay leaf senescence. These effects are beneficial to grain filling and increase grain yield.

Crop residue management is a major concern in agricultural ecosystems. These residues can be recycled into biochar and compost to efficiently promote soil organic carbon (SOC) storage in farmlands. However, the influences of straw and its derived materials on SOC (especially on humus fractions) in soil aggregates of varying sizes are largely unknown. To understand these effects, a nine-year field experiment was conducted on calcareous black soil, including five treatments: CK – no fertiliser; NPK – mineral nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium fertiliser; NPKS – NPK + straw; NPKC – NPK + compost, and NPKB – NPK + biochar. Compared to CK and NPK, the NPKS and NPKC treatments resulted in a noticeable rise (P < 0.05) in the proportion of aggregates with > 0.25 mm size (R0.25), as well as in the mean weight diameter and geometric mean diameter at 0–20 cm depth. The NPKS, NPKC, and NPKB treatments significantly (P < 0.05) increased the contents of large macroaggregates (> 2 mm), small macroaggregates (2~0.25 mm), microaggregates (0.25~0.053 mm), and non-aggregates in the 0–20 cm soil layer, as well as the levels of SOC, humic acid carbon (HAC) and humin carbon (HUC). These treatments also significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced organic carbon storage in the topsoil (0~20 cm). The effects were more pronounced after NPKB treatment relative to NPKS. Compared to CK, the application of mineral fertilisers alone and combined with organic materials significantly (P < 0.05) improved crop yields. The study’s results indicate that the application of organic materials from corn significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced both soil quality and corn yield, with straw-derived biochar showing better effects on soil carbon sequestration.

Potassium (K) is crucial for rice yield and quality, but continuous yield increase reduces protein content, challenging the balance between high yield and quality. This study analysed 3 178 case studies (1994–2024) on K management impacts on rice yield, grain protein, and amylose content, evaluating effects of K fertiliser rates, base-topdressing ratios, planting regions, and soil properties. The results showed that K application significantly increased rice yield, protein content and amylose content by 11.6, 2.0 and 1.0%, respectively. Importantly, we identified targeted K fertilisation strategies tailored to different quality goals: optimising for eating quality, nutritional quality, or synergistic improvement of yield and comprehensive quality. This study provides a scientific basis for precision K management to help growers balance rice yield with specific quality needs.

This study investigated how wheat (C3) and maize (C4) respond to soil thallium (Tl) contamination and elevated CO₂ (eCO₂), aiming to understand strategies for mitigating oxidative stress. Under eCO₂, both crops showed higher biomass production. However, high Tl concentration (120 mg/kg) significantly decreased fresh and dry weights by 31–59%, which translated directly to compromised yield. This growth decline is linked to impaired photosynthesis, evidenced by a 54–57% drop in net photosynthetic rate under elevated Tl. Such photosynthetic inhibition intensifies oxidative stress, marked by increased membrane damage and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Furthermore, photorespiration contributed to oxidative stress by generating H₂O₂, with increased activities of glycolate oxidase and hydroxypyruvate reductase rising by 122% and 201%, in wheat and by 179% and 39% in maize, respectively, in response to 120 mg/kg TI under eCO₂ conditions. Simultaneously, to mitigate oxidative damage, antioxidant defences were significantly enhanced, resulting in increased activity of the ascorbate (ASC)/glutathione (GSH) cycle, along with elevated levels of metallothionein and phytochelatin for Tl sequestration, as well as augmented glutathione S-transferase activity. Overall, findings reveal complex interactions between CO₂ and Tl, highlighting species-specific adaptive responses of C3 and C4 plants. C3 plants use photorespiration to combat oxidative stress, while C3 and C4 plants have strong antioxidant systems to reduce the effects of oxidative stress, promoting crop resilience and growth despite Tl toxicity.

We investigated, under field conditions and during four years (2018–2021) the effects of five irrigation levels (T1: 100% of crop water requirement; T2: 80% of T1; T3: 60% of T1; T4: 40% of T1, and T5: 0% of T1 – rainfed) in interaction with three planting densities (PD1: 54 900, PD2: 64 900, and PD3 75 200 plants/ha) on the yield, yield components and water use efficiency (WUE) of maize in Srem, Serbia. The results indicate a large year-to-year variability, mainly due to the total amount and distribution of rainfall. Water regime and PD interacted significantly. Irrigation increased grain yield 28, 34, 30 and 18% for treatments T1, T2, T3 and T4, respectively, compared to the T5; and significantly influenced the yield components. Planting density had significantly lower effects on grain yield compared to irrigation (+1.4–1.8%). WUE is maximised (3.436 kg/m3) at T4 under 75 200 plants/ha. Grain yield and WUE increased significantly with increasing PD, while the number of grains per ear and the weight of 1 000 grains decreased with increasing PD. In conclusion, limited irrigation at T2 under PD2 may be a viable method to maximise production efficiency and maize yield under the environmental conditions of this study and at sites with similar soil and climatic conditions.

The four-year field trial was conducted at the Rolnicze Gospodarstwo Doświadczalne Brody (Brody Experimental Farm), Poznań University of Life Sciences, Poland. This study aimed to assess how different doses of gypsum and potassium (K) fertilisers influenced the nutritive value of the alfalfa-grass mixture. The following two experimental factors were duplicated: gypsum fertilisation – two levels (0 and 500 kg/ha) and K fertilisation – four levels (0, 30, 60, and 120 kg/ha). The sward was harvested three times at the full budding phase of alfalfa. The content of nutritive components: crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), crude ash (CA) and water-soluble sugars (WSC) by NIRS technique was assessed. The combined application of gypsum and K significantly increased the yields obtained only in the 1st and 3rd harvests of the sward. In the case of CP and WSC, the application of gypsum and K showed no significant effect on the content of these components in the sward. At the same time, it significantly influenced the higher content of CF and CA only in the case of the 2nd harvest. Analysing the influence of only the effect of K on the results obtained, a response of increasing CF content in the sward under the influence of increasing doses of this nutrient was noted. The average potassium content of the sward increased from a K0 fertilisation level to an application rate of K60. In the case of CA content, there was a successive increase with the application of successive fertilisation rates from K0 to a rate of K120. Based on the average yield results, a similar response was observed for the increase in yields obtained with increasing potassium fertilisation rates from K0 to K120. CP content increased due to gypsum fertilisation, as did the achieved sward yields of the alfalfa-grass mixture. The biomass of the alfalfa-grass mixture without gypsum fertilisation contained more WSC than the fertilised one.

Sunflower serves as a valuable rotational crop, suitable for snack processing or sunflower seed oil extraction, proving to be a lucrative cash crop. To address sunflower yield uncertainties, this study employs meta-analysis to examine the impact of fertilisation. Utilising 41 studies and 392 pairs of observations based on four criteria, we found an overall 27% increase in sunflower yield with fertiliser application. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) individually applied raised yield by 23.37, 20.92, and 11.63%, respectively. Combined fertilisers (NP, NK, NP, and NPK) enhanced yield by 29.69, 28.40, 17.35, and 41.91%, respectively. Sunflower type minimally affects yield, while planting density significantly influences it. Combining local soil conditions and environmental factors with appropriate planting densities ensures maximum sunflower yield, fostering economic benefits for farmers. This study holds constructive implications for sunflower cultivation in China, contributing to increased yield.

The objectives of this study were to investigate the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) balance fertilization strategy in paddy fields, and to evaluate the effects on N uptake and utilization in rice. In 2017-2018, the experiment was conducted using Deyou4727 hybrid rice with four different P fertilizer levels (0, 30, 60, and 90 kg/ha), marked as P0, P1, P2, P3 in turn, and four different N levels (0, 90, 150, and 270 kg/ha), similarly marked as N0, N1, N2, N3 in turn. The results showed that in the N-insufficient (N0, N1) environments, the P1 treatment increased N uptake and promoted transfer to the grain. However, high-P (P3) application increased the dry matter accumulation than other P levels, but limited the production and translocation of dry matter to some extent. In N-sufficient (N2, N3) environments, P2 level increased crop yield and N use efficiency by 11.35% and 37.01%. Unlike P2, none-P (P0) and high-P levels decreased rice dry matter translocation and transport capacity, which further affected N uptake and utilization in N-sufficient environments. Overall, the combination of the N application rate of 90 kg/ha and P application rate of 30 kg/ha, N application rate of 150, 270 kg/ha, and P application rate of 60 kg/ha had a high yield; strong nutrient accumulation and transfer ability. It was more inclined to balance N and P, which was beneficial to plant N absorption and utilization.

Soil microorganisms play a main role in the nutrient cycle and they also play an important role in soil health. This article studies the influence of three rates of biochar (0.5, 1 and 3%) in comparison with control (0 biochar) in two different soils (Valečov and Čistá) on soil microbiota activities. The biochar was prepared from 80% of digestate from Zea mays L. and 20% of cellulose fibres by pyrolysis (470°C, 17 min). The biochar ability to influence microbial processes in soil was determined by respiration and nitrification tests. There were no significant differences between basal respiration of control samples and biochar-amended samples. Basal respiration in the Valečov soil reached average amounts from 1.32 to 1.52 mg CO₂/h/100 g. In the Čistá soil, basal respiration reached average amounts from 1.40 to 1.49 mg CO₂/h/100 g. No significant differences were proved also in nitrification tests of both soils. Nitrifying potential was the highest in 3% rate of biochar amendment. There were no negative changes in the measured soil parameters. CO₂ efflux was not higher in biochar-amended soil.

o uncover the regulatory metabolism of poly-glutamic acid (PGA) in protecting wheat crops against salt stress (SS) at the physiological level, we utilised hydroponic experiments to explore the roles of PGA in regulating the photosynthetic performance, water physiology, antioxidant metabolism and ion homeostasis of wheat seedlings exposed to SS for 10 days. The findings demonstrated that SS inhibited the photosynthetic performance of wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA all improved the photosynthetic performance, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS decreased nonphotochemical quenching (q_N) by 26.3% and respectively increased photosynthetic rate (Pn), soil and plant analyser development (SPAD) value, maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) (F_v/F_m), photochemical quenching (q_P) and actual photochemical efficiency of PSII (Y(II)) by 54.0, 27.8, 34.6, 42.4 and 25.8%. For water metabolism, SS destroyed the water balance of wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA enhanced water balance, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS decreased leaf water saturation deficit (LWSD) by 35.5% and respectively increased leaf relative water content (LRWC), transpiration rate (T_r), stomatal conductance (g_s) and the contents of soluble sugars (SSS) and proline (Pro) by 15.9, 94.7, 37.5, 44.6 and 62.3%. For antioxidant metabolism, SS induced the peroxide damage to wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA all mitigated the SS-induced peroxide damage, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS respectively decreased superoxide anion (O₂^–), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents and electrolyte leakage (EL) by 39.1, 29.6, 46.2 and 36.3%, and respectively increased superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductases (DHAR) and monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) activities, and antioxidants ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH) contents by 69.2, 49.2, 77.8, 80.6, 109.5, 121.7, 104.5, 63.8 and 39.6%. Besides, SS destroyed the ion homeostasis of wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA all maintained ion homeostasis, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS reduced Na+ content by 40.7% and respectively increased K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ contents by 64.4, 82.6 and 105.6%, thereby respectively increasing K⁺/Na⁺, Ca²⁺/Na⁺ and Mg²⁺/Na⁺ ratios by 177.6, 209.4 and 244.8%. In the above ways, SS inhibited wheat height and biomass. In contrast, different doses of PGA all improved wheat height and biomass under SS, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS, respectively, increased wheat height and biomass by 27.4% and 41.7%. In the above ways, PGA mitigated salt toxicity in wheat seedlings. The current findings implied that there was a potential for the use of PGA in real situations to improve wheat salt tolerance, especially for the 0.3% dose.

The boron (B) availability and uptake were studied in relation to different phosphorus rates applied into soils in a three-year field experiment (2015-2017). The experiment was carried out at the experimental station at Humpolec (Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, Czech Republic). Three rates of phosphorus (20-40-80 kg P/ha) were applied as triple superphosphate. The crop rotation was spring barley-winter oilseed rape-winter wheat. No systematic fertilization with B was used and the response of natural boron soil content to the different phosphorus supply was studied. The crop yields, B content in plants, B-uptake, and content of B (extracted by Mehlich 3 and NH₄ acetate methods) were determined. Spring barley and winter wheat B uptake was about one order of magnitude lower in comparison with oilseed rape. Significant differences in B content in soils, in crop tissues and B-uptake, were found mainly under higher phosphorus doses (40 and 80 kg P/ha). NH₄ acetate method showed better correlations between P and B contents in soils than Mehlich 3 method from the second experimental year. The P-fertilization may affect negatively the B-uptake by plants, particularly if the highly nutrient demanding crop is grown.

Although the effects of fertiliser addition and liming on semi-natural grassland productivity and biomass quality are well documented, less is known about how fertilisers change plant functional groups and mean ecological values. We researched the effects of liming (no lime and lime with 1 t/ha) and mineral fertilisers (control – no fertilisers, PK-P60K60, N20PK-N20P60K60, N80PK-N80P60K60, and N140PK-N140P60K60) for nine years on the Danthonia alpina Vest. grassland community. Based on Brown-Blanquet cover abundance, we calculated Shannon-Wiener evenness and abundance of plant functional groups (based on height, canopy structure, storage organs presence and flowering duration). We also researched Landolt’s ecological indicator values for nutrients, moisture, reaction, light, and temperature. Results revealed that fertilisers stimulated tall species with longer flowering duration. Shannon-Wiener evenness in control was 0.45, and N20PK increased to 0.71 but significantly decreased in treatment N140PK (0.25). Mean Landolt ecological value for nutrients and moisture increased while temperature dropped. The coverage of legumes and Landolt indicator value for nutrients increased because of the lime application, while the lime had no effect on Shannon-Wiener evenness and abundance of functional groups. Greater Shannon-Wiener evenness in treatments of PK and N20PK is a prerequisite for resistance to the effects of extreme climate events.

Using biostimulants to enhance plant growth and increase yield and secondary metabolites in medicinal and aromatic plants is an important strategy to achieve sustainable agriculture. The influence of two strains of nitrogen-fixing rhizobacteria (NFB) of Azotobacter chroococcum (NFB1) and Azospirillum lipoferum (NFB2), three levels of seaweed extract (SWE; 0 (SWE1), 250 (SWE1), and 500 mg/L (SWE2)) and their interactions have been investigated on Trachyspermum ammi L. (ajwain) growth, fruit yield, and essential oil constituents for two winter seasons. Growth traits (plant height, number of branches, and fresh and dry weights) and fruit traits (umbel number, 1 000-fruit weight, and fruit yield) were improved following NFB and/or SWE applications. Leaf pigments, total phenols, carbohydrates, free amino acids, and nutrient content were also enhanced. Ajwain plants that received NFB2 soil inoculation and foliarly sprayed with SWE1 observed the highest growth and yield values. Applying this treatment resulted in 27.6% and 32.7% higher fruit yield per plant for the first and second seasons, respectively, compared to the control. The results of GC-MS revealed that γ-terpinene, p-cymene, and thymol are the major components in ajwain essential oil. All applications used changed the percentages of the main components detected in ajwain essential oil. For instance, increasing SWE level caused a reduction in γ-terpinene with an increase in thymol content. The highest conservation rate from γ-terpinene to thymol was detected in NFB2 × SWE1-treated plants, with the highest thymol content and least γ-terpinene. Azospirillum lipoferum soil inoculation with SWE1 foliar application is recommended to enhance ajwain production, in terms of fruit yield and oil quality.

Rising CO₂ concentration in the atmosphere is a matter of global concern and poses apprehension about how plants will adapt to the changing environment. Various studies have proved that under high CO₂ levels, plant physiology alters and affects plant functioning. However, under elevated CO₂, the stomatal characters and their relation with physiological responses are still not yet clear. To find out these changes in the stomatal parameters at ambient and two elevated CO₂ (550 ppm and 700 ppm) levels, four genotypes of maize (Zea mays L.) viz. DHM-117, Harsha, Varun and M-24 were grown in open-top chambers. In the study, it was observed that the stomatal density increased, stomatal size altered, stomatal conductance (g_s) and transpiration rate (T_r) decreased under elevated CO₂ (eCO₂) while photosynthetic rate (Pn), water use efficiency (WUE), yield and biomass, of which especially the reproductive biomass increased. Under eCO₂, stomatal and physiological changes were genotypic and CO₂ concentration specific. Increased stomatal density at eCO₂ was mainly due to increased abaxial stomatal density. The improved P_n and reduced T_r at 550 ppm improved the WUE in the plants, while this response was not observed at 700 ppm. These results elucidate that this C4 crop responded positively to up to 550 ppm of CO₂ concentrations, and beyond this, the impact was minimal.

Bromus sterilis L. (barren brome) is one of the most economically important noxious grass weeds in the winter cereal fields of Europe. Its ecological behaviour in this agro-climatic region should be assessed for effective weed control strategies. The present study was conducted to assess the dormancy and germination response of the B. sterilis population from the Czech Republic under thermal, light, and stress conditions. The dormancy loss experiment revealed that seeds exposed to the light regime showed a remarkably lower percentage of germination, and under alternating temperatures of 10/20 °C in dark conditions, rapid loss of primary dormancy was observed. This population was found to germinate across a wide temperature range of 5–35 °C, with the highest germination rate at 25 °C (T50 = 1.14 days in dark, 1.21 days in light) and the germination time increased with decreasing temperatures below 25 °C. Further, due to fitness advantage, herbicide-resistant (R) biotypes were found to be more stress-tolerant than susceptible (S) biotypes under salinity and drought conditions. In the highest stress conditions, the germination of S biotypes was negligible, while R biotypes can germinate under high stress, but germination decreased below 25 °C. The current findings may add value to effective weed control strategies using prediction models based on seed dormancy and germination values under different hydrothermal conditions.

The Yellow River Delta, an important area of reserved arable land resources in China, is faced with the problem of crop productivity being typically limited by low soil quality. Developing techniques that raised crop yield without environmental damage was critically needed. To date, the knowledge about the joint impacts of biochar (C) and phosphorus (P) addition on soil properties and maize production under different weather conditions in this area is seriously lacking. Consequently, a full factorial field experiment including three biochar intensities (0 (C0), 5 000 (C1), and 10 000 (C2) kg/ha), three phosphorus fertilisation levels (0 (P0), 60 (P1), and 120 (P2) kg P/ha), and their combinations was conducted in Binzhou, Shandong province of China from 2021 to 2022. Compared to 2022, the maize yield was dramatically reduced in 2021 (with a 35% mean decrease) due to excessive rainfall in the maize reproductive growth stage (P < 0.01). C addition caused greater proportions and contributions of dry matter and nutrient remobilisation from pre-anthesis vegetation organs to grain. Subsequently, maize yield was much more promoted in 2021 (23%) than in 2022 (5%) by adding C, in which the discrepancies between C1 and C2 were relatively small and insignificant. On the other hand, these corresponding effects of P and C × P were relatively modest. From the soil perspective, soil physical (hydraulic conductivity (Ks) and bulk density) and chemical properties (soil organic carbon, total N, and soil available N) were significantly improved by C addition (P < 0.01). More importantly, we detected negative interactions of C × P on soil available P and phosphorus activation coefficient (P < 0.01), as soil available P was lowered with more input of C and P together (particularly under P2 series). The two-year outcomes suggested that C addition could enhance maize growth and ensure crop yield stability. Still, the combined incorporation of this kind of C and P (especially for C2P2) was not recommended in the saline-alkali land. The present study delivered useful insight into the rational utilisation of C and P fertilisers in the Yellow River Delta.

Salinity stress poses an increasing threat to global rice production, particularly under climate change. Enhancing salinity tolerance is crucial to sustain rice production and food security. This study aimed to assess genetic variation among rice parental genotypes and their derived crosses under salinity stress by evaluating physiological, biochemical, agronomic, and yield-related traits. Seven diverse rice genotypes were used to develop 21 crosses using a half-diallel mating design in the summer of 2023. The parental genotypes and their derived crosses were evaluated in the summer of 2024 under controlled greenhouse lysimeter conditions. Salinity stress was induced by irrigation with water containing 10.60 dS/m, and soil salinity was maintained at 9.60 dS/m through controlled irrigation and drainage. Twenty key traits were studied, including phenological and agronomic attributes, yield traits, and physiological and biochemical markers such as relative water content, leaf CO₂ assimilation, proline accumulation, malondialdehyde content, and antioxidant enzyme activities, to assess salinity tolerance in rice genotypes. The results demonstrated highly significant variation among the evaluated parental genotypes and their derived crosses across physiological, biochemical, agronomic, and yield-related traits, indicating considerable genetic variability in the studied plant materials. The genotypes C9, R8, and R6 were identified as superior combiners contributing favourable alleles for salinity tolerance. Eleven promising F1 crosses exhibited enhanced growth, improved antioxidant enzyme activities, osmotic adjustment, reduced oxidative damage, and higher grain yield under salinity stress. Exploiting these plant materials can improve the development of novel rice genotypes tolerant of salt-affected environments, addressing the current challenges posed by climate change. Strong associations were observed among physiological, biochemical, agronomic, and yield-related traits, indicating an integrated network of responses that collectively contribute to enhanced salinity tolerance in rice.

Water deficit severely constrains sugar beet productivity by impairing photosynthetic capacity. However, the underlying structure-function mechanisms conferring photosynthetic resilience remain poorly characterised. This study investigates the temporal dynamics of photosynthetic limitations and structural adaptations in sugar beet during water deficit and subsequent rehydration. We found that water deficit significantly reduced the maximum net CO₂ assimilation rate (A_Nmax) and the Rubisco carboxylation rate (V_cmax) by impairing CO₂ diffusion and biochemical processes. The reduction in photosynthetic capacity is primarily and stably attributed to mesophyll limitation, while contributions from stomatal and biochemical limitations flexibly change with deficit degree and rehydration. Severe water deficit caused irreversible structural damage that hinders recovery even after rehydration, while moderate water deficit allows partial restoration of leaf and chloroplast function. Partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) demonstrated that CO₂ diffusion was governed by the volume fraction of intercellular air space (f_ias, β = 0.28) and surface areas of the chloroplasts exposed to leaf intercellular air spaces (S_c/S, β = 0.35), with S_c/S indirectly influencing mesophyll conductance (g_m) through fias mediation (β = 0.53). Severe water deficit caused irreversible fias reduction and chloroplast interface damage (59% cell volume loss). These findings establish that resilience to water deficit in sugar beet depends on mesophyll structural integrity, with f_ias and S_c/S as key modulators of gm recovery. The study advances understanding of stress recovery mechanisms in sugar beet and provides a framework for multiscale crop improvement in the context of climate change.

The rhizosphere plays an important role in both farmland and urban areas, affecting water quantity and quality during surface water infiltration by increasing the heterogeneity of the aeration zone. The extensive application of antibiotics, their recalcitrance to degradation, and the resultant accumulation of antibiotics in soil-microbe-plant systems represent significant threats to the rhizosphere system, thereby threatening ecological stability and environmental and human health. This review synthesises recent findings on the migration and transformation of typical and common antibiotics within the rhizosphere. The main findings include that the absorption of antibiotics by plants is influenced by their molecular weight (MW) and octanol-water partition coefficient (log K_ow), allowing antibiotics to be divided into three classes: (1) antibiotics with high lipophilicity (log K_ow > 2) are mostly adsorbed by root lipids and rarely participate in the soil-plant transport process; (2) antibiotics with log K_ow < 2 and high MWs (MW > 700) are blocked outside the plant roots; and (3) antibiotics with log K_ow < 2 and low MWs (MW < 700) can enter plants through the roots and are transported via transpiration flow in plants. Antibiotics with log K_ow < 1 are more easily transported into plant tissues, including leaves. The rhizospheric microorganisms capable of participating in antibiotic migration and transformation are concentrated in Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes. The inhibitory effect of antibiotics on dehydrogenase, sucrase, urease, catalase, and alkaline phosphatase activities surpasses their promoting effect, reducing these enzyme activities by 6–35% on average. However, the promoting effect of antibiotics on peroxidase, acidic phosphatase, and manganese peroxidase outweighs the inhibitory effect, increasing enzyme activity by 2–23%. Furthermore, it is essential to consider the effects of plant age and root characteristics on antibiotic migration and transformation. The results of this review contribute to a better understanding of the migration and transformation of antibiotics within the rhizosphere.