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Lithium (Li) plays a significant role in human physiology and psychology; however, it is non-essential for plants. The extensive use of Li in industrial processes and battery-powered devices poses a potential global threat to living organisms. This study assessed the impact of varying soil Li concentrations (0, 20, 40, 60, and 80 mg/kg) on carrot (Daucus carota L.) plants. Results revealed that Li concentrations exceeding 40 mg/kg soil had detrimental effects on carrot growth. Compared to 0 mg/kg soil, Li concentrations of 60 and 80 mg/kg reduced shoot fresh biomass by 51% and 82%, respectively, and root fresh biomass by 68% and 89%, respectively. Elevated Li levels in the soil also increased hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) content in shoots and triggered enhanced activity of antioxidant enzymes, including superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). Additionally, soil Li disrupted the uptake and translocation of essential nutrients such as potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) from roots to shoots. This study concludes that while low Li levels may elicit a positive response in plants, higher concentrations significantly impair growth and could contribute to the accumulation of Li in the food chain.

Magnetic fields, as a form of physical energy, exert an influence on biological activities. However, our current understanding of the impact of magnetic fields on wheat yield remains limited. In this study, our objective was to investigate the effects of magnetic field treatment of wheat plants on their yield, root growth, absorption of nitrogen and phosphorus and soil bacterial diversity. The experiments were conducted at two agricultural research stations in China, Zhengzhou and Xuchang. Plants were treated with magnetic fields of 20, 40, 60, and 80 mT induced by permanent magnets for chronic exposure. Untreated plants were considered as controls. Our result showed that soil nutrients were found to have a substantial impact on wheat nitrogen and phosphorus absorption, and wheat nitrogen and phosphorus absorption significantly affected wheat yield. The change in soil nutrient content was caused by the change in soil bacterial community diversity and abundance, and increased soil nutrients increased wheat yield. The results suggest that magnetic field treatment stimulated wheat plant growth and yield, and changed soil nutrient content through improved soil bacterial community diversity and increased soil nitrogen and phosphorous absorption.

Nitrogen management and irrigation methods play crucial roles in determining rice’s grain yield and quality (Oryza sativa L.). However, limited knowledge exists on how interactions between nitrogen forms and irrigation regimes regulate starch-metabolising enzyme activity to influence rice yield and quality. A soil-growth experiment was conducted using a high-lodging-resistance rice cultivar under three irrigation methods, namely, submerged irrigation (0 kPa), alternate wetting and moderate drying (−20 kPa), and alternate wetting and severe drying (−40 kPa), as well as three nitrogen forms, namely, ammonium nitrogen (NH₄⁺-N), mixed ammonium + nitrate (50 : 50), hereafter denoted as 50 : 50, and nitrate nitrogen (NO₃^–-N). Results indicated that compared with the other treatments, alternate wetting and moderate drying interacted with 50 : 50 treatment, resulting in the following: improved grain yield by 11.7–21.0%, milling, appearance, eating and cooking, and nutritional qualities including milled-rice and gel consistency; and decreased chalky rice, chalky size, chalky degree, amylose content, and protein content by 20.0–23.1, 29.6–33.3, 44.1–48.5, 6.2–9.6 and 10.1–13.9%, respectively. The activities of adenosine phosphate glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase), starch synthase (SS), starch-branching enzyme (SBE), and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) enzyme in the grains also improved, with an increase of 20.0–35.0, 11.8–20.0, 13.6–26.3 and 21.2–39.6%, respectively. Conversely, severe drying and NO₃^–-N treatment negatively impacted grain yield and quality due primarily to decreased SS activity in grains under each irrigation method. Correlation analysis showed that starch-metabolising enzyme (AGPase, SS and SBE) activity at 14 days after anthesis (DAA) and 28 DAA exhibited a positive correlation with grain yield, milling quality and gel consistency, whereas negatively correlated with appearance and nutritional qualities. In summary, the adoption of alternate wetting and moderate drying and 50 : 50 interaction treatment can synergistically boost grain yield by increasing the filled-grain rate and 1 000-grain weight and enhance grain quality of rice by upregulating the activities of starch-metabolising enzyme activity.

Nanotechnology plays a vital role in enhancing plant tolerance to salt stress; however, comparative studies on zinc oxide bulk particles (ZnO bulk) and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in this context remain unexplored. Since zinc (Zn) is an essential micronutrient involved in enzyme activation, photosynthesis, and antioxidant responses, it is important to understand how ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs influence chickpea growth under salt stress. This study investigated the morphological and physiological responses of chickpea seedlings treated with ZnO bulk (50 mg/L) and ZnO NPs (50 mg/L) under varying salt concentrations (20, 40, 80, and 120 mmol/L). Salt stress significantly inhibited chickpea growth, reducing the relative growth rate, net assimilation rate, total chlorophyll content, and potassium (K) and zinc ion levels while increasing sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), malondialdehyde (MDA), and proline content. However, the application of ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs improved these parameters, mitigating the negative effects of salt stress. Furthermore, exogenous ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs to salt-stressed (20, 40, 80, and 120 mmol/L) chickpea resulted in decreased malondialdehyde content by 30, 32, 47, 34%, and 58, 31, 48, 47%, proline content by 4, 6, 1.6, 4% and 22, 21, 22, 28%, respectively, in comparison to the control. Notably, ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. These findings suggest that foliar application of ZnO bulk and ZnO NPs helps alleviate salt stress in chickpeas, promoting better growth and physiological performance under saline conditions.

Drought stress is one of the major threats to food security in the climate change scenario. Reducing the deleterious impacts of drought stress on the productivity of cereal crops is crucial. Hence, limited information has been available about the effect of the combined use of plant growth regulators and mineral fertilisers on promoting drought tolerance in maize seedlings. In this study, a pot experiment was carried out to evaluate the potential of sole or combined application of silicon (Si) and putrescine (Put) to mitigate the detrimental effects of drought on maize. The experimental treatments were, i.e. control (CK), water spray, 4.0 mmol Si, 0.5 mmol Put, and 4.0 mmol Si + 0.5 mmol Put on maize crop grown at two different water-holding capacity levels (80% well-water condition and 40% drought stress). The experiment was arranged in a complete randomised design with factorial arrangements having three replications. Exposure of maize plants to drought stress at the reproductive phase (VT-tasseling) reduced the photosynthetic pigments, including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and chlorophyll a + b, relative water contents, leaf area, yield and yield attributes. However, foliar application of Si and Put individually and Si + Put dramatically reduced these negative effects by improving photosynthetic pigments, relative water contents, and activities of enzymatic antioxidant defence. Drought stress-induced lipid peroxidation in the form of more production of malondialdehyde content, hydrogen peroxide and electrolyte leakage significantly declined due to the combined application of Si and Put compared to the respective control. Drought stress boosted the activities of key enzymatic antioxidants (catalase, superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase) irrespective of the treatment application. Moreover, it was noted that the accumulation of osmolytes (proline and soluble protein) contents was increased by the combined application of Si and Put. Under drought stress conditions, combined foliar application of Si and Put considerably improved 22.70% cob length, 12.77% number of grains per cob, and 18.30% 100-grain weight, which ultimately enhanced maize’s 10.29% grain yield. From the current study’s findings, it was concluded that a combined foliar spray of silicon and putrescine at the reproductive phase is an effective strategy to enhance the maize yield in drought-prone areas.

Salinity represents a significant abiotic stress that markedly influences plant growth through osmotic stress induction. Plants commonly undergo osmotic adaptation when subjected to prolonged periods of saline stress. The current experiments were conducted on five wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes with contrasting salt tolerance capacities – Mirbashir 128, Gobustan, Gyzyl bughda, Fatima, and Zirva 80 under salinity stress caused by 150 mmol NaCl. The relative water content and osmotic potential were found to decrease significantly in salinity-sensitive genotypes (Fatima and Zirva 80) compared to salinity-tolerant ones (Mirbashir 128, Gobustan, and Gyzyl bughda) when treated with 150 mmol NaCl. Salinity also caused the accumulation of soluble sugars and proline, the amounts of which were observed to be higher in salinity-tolerant genotypes than sensitive ones, while lipid peroxidation was higher in salinity-sensitive genotypes. In salinity-tolerant genotypes, 150 mmol NaCl caused increased antioxidant enzyme activities and accumulation of flavonoids, including anthocyanins, confirming the rapid development of the stress reactions in these plants. Differences in the osmoregulation indicators and antioxidant responses between salinity-tolerant and sensitive plants are assumed to be related to their salinity-tolerance traits. This investigation provides pivotal foundational insights for enhancing the salt tolerance of wheat genotypes, thereby potentially enhancing both yield and quality in diverse wheat cultivars thriving in saline environments.

Coastal wetlands play a vital role in the migration and transformation of heavy metal pollutants in watersheds. There were 30 surface sediment samples that were analysed to investigate the distribution and ecological risks of heavy metals in the coastal wetlands around the Bohai Sea. Our results showed that the average concentrations of Pb, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Cd in these wetlands were 17.92 ± 5.81, 50.29 ± 20.50, 31.53 ± 9.71, 25.37 ± 4.29, 80.13 ± 15.11, and 0.92 ± 0.54 mg/kg, respectively. Relative to other wetlands, Pb (25.43 ± 2.68 mg/kg) and Cd (1.67 ± 0.06 mg/kg) contents were higher in the Liaohe Delta wetland (LHDW). Cu (28.44 ± 3.71 mg/kg), Cr (83.11 ± 5.80 mg/kg), and Ni (45.91 ± 3.02 mg/kg) contents were higher in the Yellow River Delta wetland (YRDW). The Zn (120.86 ± 7.41 mg/kg) content was higher in the Qilihai wetland. Heavy metal concentrations in coastal wetland sediments are shown to be positively correlated with organic matter content. Our results showed that the concentration of heavy metals decreases with increasing sediment particle size. In this study, Cd showed the highest pollution index and, therefore, more attention should be paid to the potential ecological risks of Cd in coastal wetlands around the Bohai Sea, especially in the LHDW and YRDW.

The aim of our three consecutive years (2017-2019) field trial was to obtain information as to the effect of weather conditions of the actual year as well as to assess the impact of some technological parameters such as fertilisation, the choice on the hybrid type on the yield parameters, phytosanitary conditions and mycotoxin contamination of maize. According to our results, the climatic characteristics of the years, the examined hybrid characters (FAO 310 and 490) and the fact of N-fertilisation had significant effects on yield parameters and grain moisture content. The additional N-supply did not affect the development or severity of stem rot in any of the hybrid effects. In this respect, the year effect appeared to be the decisive factor since much higher stem rot values were recorded in the plots of the longer growing season hybrids. Among the mycotoxins examined, only zearalenone and fumonisin found in the harvest were significantly influenced by the effect of the year, the length of the growing season as well as nutrient replenishment. It can be stated that the applied technological parameters have a major effect on the expression of this toxin load in maize. Dry maize stocks that have lost their water in the vegetation are predisposing factors for toxin accumulation. N-content of soil and that of plants can play a different role in mycotoxin accumulation in maize plants.

Rice paddy fields serve as an important source of stable food supply and a notable contributor to atmospheric methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). Rice cultivar selection acts as a pivotal factor in regulating greenhouse gas (GHGs) of CH₄ and N₂O emissions from rice paddy fields. However, little is known about how different types of rice cultivars affect CH₄ and N₂O emissions. In the study, three types of rice cultivars, including Japonica-type Indica-Japonica hybrid rice (JHR: ZJY1578 and JHY5), Indica-type hybrid rice (IHR: ZZY8 and JFY2), and inbred rice (IR: J67 and XS121), were selected to evaluate differences in mitigating GHGs. Results showed that the total CH₄ and N₂O emissions of two Japonica-type Indica-Japonica hybrid rice cultivars were 49.81–60.01 kg/ha and 0.67–0.83 g/ha, respectively, which were lower than those of the other two rice cultivar types. The total equivalent of carbon dioxide emissions of CH₄ and N₂O (TCO₂-eq) of two Japonica hybrid rice significantly reduced by 16.7–46.9%, compared with the other two types of rice cultivars (IHR and IR). CH₄ contributed 85.5–89.9% to the GWP, while 65.6–80.4% in the field of planting inbred rice. The reduction in GHGs emissions is mainly attributed to yield, available carbon and nitrogen contents, root morphological characteristics, and functional genes. Consequently, GHGs emissions in paddy fields could be mitigated by selecting or breeding cultivars with high yield, lower root exudates, and greater root porosity.

Soil available and total zinc are important indicators of soil zinc status, yet the global effects of different fertilisation practices on soil available and total zinc and the drivers of their variation remain insufficiently quantified. We conducted a global meta-analysis based on data extracted from published field studies. A total of 1 240 paired observations of soil available zinc from 94 studies and 364 paired observations of soil total zinc from 44 studies published between 1993 and 2024 were compiled. The effects of eight fertiliser types (mineral fertilisers without zinc [CF], compost, manure, zinc fertiliser, CF combined with either compost [CFC] or manure [CFM] or zinc fertiliser [CFZn], and compost combined with zinc fertiliser [CZn]) on the soil available and total zinc content were assessed by meta-analysis. The results indicated that compared to the control group, soil available zinc content increased significantly under treatments CZn, CFZn, zinc fertiliser, CFM, manure, CFC, and compost by 158, 134, 133, 84, 78, 43, and 35%, respectively. Additionally, manure, CFM, zinc fertiliser, CFZn, and CZn treatments significantly enhanced soil total zinc content, with increases ranging from 25% to 32%. Applying zinc fertiliser at > 20 kg Zn/ha significantly increased soil-available zinc. In the medium-rate CZn class (10–20 kg Zn/ha), soil available zinc increased from 0.78 mg/kg in the control soils to 3.46 mg/kg in the treated soils. Among crop systems, wheat showed a stronger response in soil-available zinc, whereas rice-growing systems showed relatively larger increases in soil-total zinc under manure and CFM treatments. Fertilisation intensity, crop types, soil organic carbon, and soil pH emerged as key drivers of variation in soil available zinc, whereas the main drivers of soil total zinc varied among fertiliser types and were more often associated with fertiliser rate and crop types. When soil organic carbon was ≤ 12 g/kg or soil pH was > 7.5, applying CZn at 10–20 kg Zn/ha showed greater potential to increase soil available zinc. These findings suggest that soil zinc management should be optimised based on fertilisation intensity, crop type, soil organic carbon, and soil pH to improve zinc availability while avoiding excessive accumulation.

The impact of exogenously applied glycine betaine (GB; 0, 5, 10, 20 and 50 mmol) was evaluated in preventing Vigna radiata from the adverse effects of salt (100 mmol NaCl) stress. Salinity reduced growth parameters, such as plant height and fresh and dry weight of plants, while GB application significantly alleviated the decline. Salinity stress led to a decline in total chlorophylls and carotenoids, as well as a reduction in the net photosynthetic rate and gas exchange attributes, including stomatal conductance, transpiration rate, and intercellular CO₂. However, GB supplementation significantly alleviated this decline. Salinity stress increased the accumulation of hydrogen peroxide, superoxide and methylglyoxal, while as applied GB reduced their accumulation, causing a significant decline in the lipid peroxidation. Application of GB, at all concentrations, increased the activity of the antioxidant enzymes under normal and salinity stress treatments with 10 and 20 mmol concentrations, imparting the highest increase. Increase in the radical scavenging activity due to GB application was also supported by increased total antioxidant activity assays measured as percent DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging. In addition, GB-supplemented plants exhibited an apparent increase in the activities of glyoxalase I and glyoxalase II enzymes. Accumulation of osmotic compounds like proline, sugars and GB increased significantly due to GB application and showed a further increase in salt-stressed plants. More importantly, the GB-treated plants exhibited a considerable decline in sodium accumulation, causing a decline Na/K in them. Glycine betaine was effective in mitigating the deleterious effects of salinity.

This study investigates the impact of prolonged sugarcane cultivation on the pedo-morphological characteristics and physicochemical properties of three soil types: Entisols, Inceptisols, and Vertisols, as a basis for determining the improvement step ensuring the sustainability of sugarcane production in Indonesia. Soil samples were collected from fields of sugarcane cultivated for 10, 20, and 30 years to analyse pedo-morphological and physicochemical properties. The results indicate that while Entisols and Inceptisols exhibited significant changes in soil properties with increasing cultivation duration, the pedo-morphology of Vertisols remained relatively stable. All soil types developed Ap horizons due to sugarcane cultivation, with anthropogenic practices leading to more dynamic changes in surface horizons. Extended cultivation reduced soil organic matter, N-total, and available nitrogen, while phosphorus and exchangeable cation availability were influenced by mineral composition. Notably, cation exchange capacity (CEC) decreased in Entisols and Inceptisols but increased in Vertisols. For productivity, Vertisols demonstrated the most stable and highest sugarcane productivity with long-term monoculture cultivation. There is a need for tailored sustainable soil management across different soil types and practices to mitigate soil degradation and maintain nutrient availability to ensure the sustainability of sugarcane production in Indonesia.

In this study, the effects of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and humic acid (HA) chelate applied to soils contaminated with heavy metals on the development, antioxidant defence system, and phytoremediation of forage turnip (Brassica rapa L.) were investigated for the first. Three doses of EDTA (E1: 5 mmol/kg, E2: 10 mmol/kg, E3: 15 mmol/kg) and three doses of HA (HA1: 500 mg/kg, HA2: 1 000 mg/kg, HA3: 2 000 mg/kg) were applied to soils contaminated with heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Zn, and Cr) in the pot. According to experiment results, HA application as chelate to the polluted soil caused a significant increase in the growth of forage turnip. Phytoremediation values of the plant for Cd heavy metal were found to be BCFshoot, BCFroot > 1, and translocation factor > 1. This result proved that forage turnip has Cd accumulating properties. Also, HA application caused a decrease in H2O2 (46%) and malondialdehyde (6%) levels and antioxidative enzyme activity in polluted soil. It has been concluded that humic acid improves the oxidative stress conditions in the plant and is more effective in the development and growth of the plant than EDTA, so that it can be used effectively in phytoremediation studies.

Covering hop waste composting piles with semipermeable membrane after the thermophilic phase until spring, when the compost was ready to use, reduced the volume of leachate and leached nutrients amounts significantly; there was a negligible amount of leachate and low amount of leached nutrients during winter and spring at all treatments. At treatments with additives (biochar, preparation effective microorganisms) and larger percent of particles of 2–5 cm, it was indicated that composting pile should probably also be covered in the first months of composting and be opened only when turning/mixing it; on the other hand, the amount of leachate was much lower in a pile without additives and particles of 2–10 cm by the time of covering (2.2- and 2.5-fold less respectively) and the amount of leached nutrients as well. All treatments produced compost without a bad smell, had a total nitrogen content greater than 2%, could be considered as mature (the C : N ratio was below 20) and stable, and the biomass hygienisation threshold was reached. However, there were some significant differences among them. The compost of the pile with added biochar and starting hop waste biomass particles of 2–5 cm was considered phytotoxic (germination index of radish was 31%); also, its other results were less promising in comparison to other treatments. The pile with no additive and the starting particles of waste hop biomass 2 to 10 cm, mixed properly related to regular temperature measurements in the thermophilic phase, reached the best results; the leachate amount and leaked nutrients amount were significantly the lowest, while the final compost contained significantly higher amount of nutrients and had the highest germination index.

The effect of mineral, organic (manure or straw + intercrop) and combined fertilisation on the development of soil nutrient contents over time and their mutual ratios was evaluated in a long-term field trial, IOSDV (established in 1984 at two sites), differing in the soil-climatic conditions. Three cropping cycles, from 2016 to 2018, 2019 to 2021, and 2022 to 2024, were studied in the following crop rotation: winter wheat-winter barley-root crop (sugar beet at Ivanovice na Hané and potatoes at Lukavec). Potassium and phosphorus in mineral fertilisers have not been applied since the year 2020 due to their high content found in soils after dry years with low yields. Consequently, their content decreased, most in the third rotation, both by the Mehlich 3 method and especially the exchange fraction extractable with NH₄-acetate (Ivanovice: P 5–14%, 32–40% and K up to 12%, 9–20% determined by Mehlich 3 and NH₄-acetate, respectively; Lukavec: Mehlich 3 – P increase: 5–16%, K decrease: 0–8%; NH₄^- acetate decrease – P: 10–13%, K 8–23%). The mutual ratio of nutrients equivalents K : Mg : Ca was lower than required values 1 : 2–3 : 10–15 at both sites and all studied treatments, however a slight increase was observed during the studied period, above all in system with only mineral fertilisation (Ivanovice: K : Mg : Ca from 1 : 1.2 : 5.6 to 1 : 1.4 : 6.8, Lukavec: from 1 : 1.0 : 7.7 to 1 : 1.0 : 9.6). A correctly balanced ratio of nutrients in the soil is important for maintaining soil fertility. In this long-term field experiment, the increase in nutrient levels in soils over reasonable levels was observed, highlighting the necessity of regular nutrient testing in agricultural soils, especially when multiple types of fertilisers are used simultaneously.

The Seriphidium transiliense desert pasture is an important spring-autumn pasture in northern Xinjiang, China, and has been subjected to grazing by livestock at different intensities, thus resulting in widespread deterioration of its biodiversity and ecosystem services. To understand the response mechanism of stoichiometric characteristics of desert vegetation to grazing, the leaf carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and C : N : P ratios of S. transiliense were studied under different grazing intensities. The results show that the control S. transiliense leaf C, N and P contents and C : N, C : P and N : P ratios were 458.79 ± 53.5 g/kg, 20.6 ± 7.18 g/kg, 2.83 ± 1.24 g/kg, 25.69 ± 11.08, 190.28 ± 75.65 and 8.21 ± 4.01, respectively. The differences in these characteristics varied with grazing intensity in accordance with sampling time, so both factors need to be considered comprehensively. General linear model (GLM) analysis indicated that grazing intensity had a strong main effect on S. transiliense leaf C, N, and P content, C : N ratio and N : P ratio. As grazing intensity increased, the leaf N content and N : P ratio increased (P < 0.01), and the C : N ratio decreased (P < 0.01). N content was the limiting factor for the growth of S. transiliense, but the grazing intensity, sampling year and growth season each affected the degree of N limitation. Our findings suggest that the remaining moderate stocking rate was essential for sustaining desert stabilisation in Xinjiang, and although S. transiliense could adapt its nutrient content and leaf stoichiometry to the grazing intensity, N was always the limiting element for the growth of S. transiliense.

The issue of heavy metals (HMs) contamination poses a significant challenge in the environment, exerting a severe impact on the growth and productivity of crops. Cadmium (Cd) is specifically identified as the seventh heavy metal among the top 20 pollutants, primarily due to its elevated phytotoxicity and its solubility in water. In the current study, foliar application of glycine betaine (GB) (500 µmol) investigated the toxic effects of cadmium in maize plants subjected to two Cd concentrations (50 and 100 µmol) as CdCl2. The maize plants exposed to Cd stress exhibited a massive reduction in growth, biomass, photosynthetic pigments [chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), carotenoids, and total pigments], gas exchange parameters [transpiration rate (Tr), net photosynthetic rate (Pn), intracellular CO2 concentration (ci), and stomatal conductance (gs)], relative water content (RWC), and organic osmolytes content [total soluble protein (TSS), and total soluble sugar (TSS)]. These impacts were significant with the 100 µmol CdCl2 treatment. Moreover, Cd led to remarked increase in proline, nonenzymatic antioxidants levels [ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH)] as well as the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase (GR). On the other hand, GB application efficiently relieved the Cd toxic impacts on maize and maintained higher growth criteria, gas exchange parameters, photosynthetic pigments, RWC, and organic osmolytes. In addition, the exogenous application of GB added more enhancement to the antioxidative system (enzymatic and nonenzymatic). These results imply that GB could significantly preserve maize growth under Cd toxicity conditions by maintaining photosynthetic characteristics, water status, and antioxidant system. This suggests an enhancement in the plant’s resilience to stress induced by heavy metals.

Nitrogen fertiliser is a key determinant of rice yield and grain quality; however, the synergistic mechanisms through which nitrogen regulates root anatomical structure, physiological traits, and cooking quality in rice varieties with different eating properties remain unclear. In this study, a pot experiment was conducted using two moderate-eating-quality cultivars (Xudao 3 and Huageng 9) and two superior-eating-quality cultivars (Zhengdao C42 and Nangeng 9308) under four nitrogen levels (0, 0.59, 1.18, and 1.76 g/pot, designated as N0, N1, N2, and N3, respectively). Cooking quality was assessed by amylose content, gel consistency, and alkali spreading value. The results demonstrated that, with increasing nitrogen application, amylose content, alkali spreading value, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, root aerenchyma area, and aerenchyma proportion decreased initially, then increased, reaching their lowest values at the N2 level. In contrast, gel consistency, root antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, POD, CAT), photosynthetic rate and cortical living cell proportion increased first and then decreased, peaking at N2 treatment. Compared with moderate-eating-quality varieties, superior-eating-quality varieties exhibited significantly lower amylose content, alkali spreading value, MDA content, and aerenchyma proportion, but higher gel consistency, living cell proportion, stele-to-root diameter ratio, antioxidant enzyme activities, and photosynthetic rate. Correlation analysis revealed that root antioxidant enzyme activities, stele diameter and living cell proportion were negatively correlated with amylose content, but positively correlated with gel consistency. Conversely, MDA content, aerenchyma area and aerenchyma proportion showed opposite correlation patterns. These findings indicate that an appropriate nitrogen application rate (1.18 g/pot) enhances root physiological activity, optimises root anatomical structure, and ensures sufficient source supply to the grain sink, thereby synergistically improving cooking quality – an effect particularly pronounced in high-eating-quality rice varieties.

This study investigates the impacts of exogenously applied proline (Pro, 10 mmol/L) on the growth and productivity of wheat plants in saline environments. The findings indicated that increased NaCl concentrations, 60 and 120 mmol/L, further depressed the shoot and root growth parameters and flag leaf area. However, the Pro treatment ameliorated salt stress and improved all growth parameters, reducing the magnitude of such growth inhibitions compared to nontreated plants. It also enhanced the organic osmolyte accumulation, including Pro, total soluble sugars, and total soluble protein, implicated in osmotic balance and cell protection under stress. Furthermore, supplementing Pro improved ionic balance through a reduction in Na accumulation and an enhancement in the uptake of K, Ca, and Mg, thus mitigating the negative effects of salinity on nutrient availability. Pro treatment affected phytohormone levels, especially increasing auxin and gibberellins while decreasing abscisic acid under salt stress. Antioxidant enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase, as well as nonenzymatic antioxidants like ascorbic acid and glutathione, were also enhanced by Pro, thereby protecting the plants against oxidative damage. Moreover, it was noticed that Pro treatment substantially improved all yield attributes of wheat plants, such as plant height, spike length, no. of spikelets/main spike, grain no./main spike, grain fresh and dry weights, and grain yield/plant through attenuation of the negative impact of NaCl. In this regard, Pro application appears to be a very promising approach toward mitigating the adversities of salinity in agriculture, especially in crop productivity in saline environments.

Effective weed management is crucial in the critical period of sugar beet production, but often lacks sustainability and environmental protection. Recent advancements in sensor-based weed control systems have rendered the latter a realistic prospect, which demands detailed analyses, especially under suboptimal field conditions. The present study analysed six robotic-assisted weed control systems (RAWS) in three experiments on sugar beets in 2024, conducted under dry soil and high weed pressure. The experiments included sensor-based inter-row and intra-row hoeing, spot- and band-spraying and were compared to a broadcast herbicide treatment and an untreated control. Weed control efficacy (WCE) in the intra- and inter-row areas, as well as weed species composition and crop plant damage, were assessed after treatment. The data show that intra-row WCE of two hoeing robots (Farming GT® and Robovator®) equipped with selective intra-row blades achieved up to 80%, which was higher than the broadcast herbicide control with 67% WCE. In the inter-row area, Farming GT® robotic hoeing and ARA® spot-spraying resulted in more than 90% WCE, which was equal to the broadcast herbicide application. Weed species composition was not affected by the different RAWS. Crop plants were affected by all hoeing treatments with maximum non-lethal burial rates of 33%. The highest lethal uprooting of crop plants occurred after Farming GT® robotic hoeing, at 5.5% overall. The results demonstrate the great potential of robotic weeding to replace broadcast herbicide applications.

A pot experiment was carried out to determine the effect of Serendipita indica on the salt response of Lolium multiflorum Lam. Although the salinity decreased the root colonisation of S. indica by 28.34%, successful colonisation of S. indica increased the seed germination rate, fresh weight, leaf relative water content and chlorophyll content by 28.09, 59.01, 38.78 and 28.80%, respectively, compared with uncolonised seedlings. Under salinity, leaf malondialdehyde content, leaf relative electrical conductivity, as well as Na+ content and Na⁺/K⁺ ratio in leaves and roots of S. indica-colonised seedlings were decreased by 33.99, 33.31, 63.40% and 47.42, 85.66 and 55.88%, respectively, compared with uncolonised seedlings. Meanwhile, compared with uncolonised seedlings under salinity, the contents of proline in leaves, N, P and K⁺ in leaves and roots of the S. indica-colonised seedlings were increased by 47.47, 45.69 and 30.05%, and 41.77, 19.51, 19.18 and 155.00%, respectively. These results indicate that S. indica colonisation confers salt tolerance in L. multiflorum seedlings by enhancing osmotic adjustment via actively accumulating proline and K⁺, increasing the uptake of nutrients such as N and P, and improving Na⁺/K⁺ homoeostasis. The study would provide a new idea for the combined application of salt-tolerant plants and symbiotic microorganisms in the ecological restoration of saline-alkali lands.

Deep placement of controlled-release urea is an effective fertiliser management strategy for improving the maize productivity, but it is not clear whether and how controlled-release urea depth affects the stem and root lodging of spring maize. Two consecutive years of field experiments were conducted to elucidate stem and root lodging properties and their relationship between grain yield and lodging behaviours under various controlled-release urea placement depths. Results depicted that compared to broadcast nitrogen treatment (D0), deep controlled-release urea significantly decreased the stem lodging rate by 34.7–80.4%, which contributed to improving the mechanical characteristics of the internode by optimising the internode diameter and dry matter in the third basal internode as well as higher lignin content. In addition, due to a greater and deeper root system (root dry weight, root surface area, root length and root width) as well as larger angle, diameter, and tension of aerial root that significantly decreased root lodging rate (37.0–88.4%). Furthermore, deep placement of controlled-release urea significantly increased the 100-grain weight, grain number and harvested index by constructing a deeper and larger root system, which significantly improved maize grain yield by 14.2–38.5%, and the nitrogen use efficiency increased by 4.8–10.7%. The highest grain yield, nitrogen use efficiency and lowest lodging rate occurred in controlled-release urea placement depths of 15 cm. Hence, our study suggests that controlled-release urea placement depths of 15 cm were an efficient nitrogen fertiliser management strategy to improve crop productivity as well as lodging resistance in spring maize.

Despite accumulating evidence for the adverse effects of magnesium (Mg) deficiency or excess on grain crops, how Mg imbalance affects plant growth and potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) nutrition in vegetable crops is still unclear. The aim of this study was to ascertain the response of plant growth, nutrient uptake and Mg-K-Ca interactions in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) to various levels of Mg supply. The growth parameters and nutrient contents of hydroponic plants were measured under the Mg levels of 0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and 3.0 mmol/L Mg²⁺ from seedling to fruit ripening stage. Results showed that both Mg deficiency (0 mmol/L Mg²⁺) and excess (3.0 mmol/L Mg²⁺) negatively affected shoot and root growth, leading to a noticeable decrease in total plant biomass across different stages (41.2–52.8% and 17.7–38.3%, respectively). Mg imbalance additionally altered leaf morphology and disrupted chloroplast structure. As a consequence of increased Mg levels, the Mg contents in various plant organs increased, whereas the Ca contents decreased substantially. The trend of K contents under different Mg levels was dependent on the plant growth stage. Although Mg levels did not prominently affect plant K contents during the early growth stage, they were significantly negatively correlated in the leaves and positively correlated in the fruit during the late growth stage. When translocated from roots to aboveground organs, Mg and Ca were mainly distributed in the leaves, with K preferentially distributed in the fruit. The findings of this study underscore that the symptoms of Mg imbalance generally develop from middle leaves in vegetable crops, exemplified by tomato, which is different from the pattern in common grain crops. Vegetable production necessitates nutrient supply for the middle and upper parts of Mg-deficient plants, and attention should be paid to the nutritional imbalance of Ca and K in plants under excessive Mg supply.

Soil salinisation is a major constraint on food security and agricultural development, and remains a critical concern in the agricultural sector. In this study, we examined the effects of three straw return methods – straw mulching, straw burial, and a combination of straw mulching and burial – along with inorganic amendments (CaSiO₃ and MgSO₄) on maize growth, soil organic matter, bulk density, salinity, and the contents of individual salt base ions. A 120-day planting experiment was conducted using soil columns and included maize cultivation under irrigation and drenching conditions. The combined treatments (straw return with Ca-Mg application) were more effective in reducing salinity and improving soil properties than straw return alone. Na⁺, K⁺, Cl^–, and HCO₃ contents, as well as soil bulk density, decreased by 45.99–48.43, 28.07–28.36, 20.91–24.17, 18.93–21.03, and 7.64–8.40%, respectively. Regarding crop growth promotion, compared with the single treatment, the combined application of straw return with Ca-Mg (PI, SPI) resulted in a 6.46–8.30% increase in superoxide dismutase activity, an 8.66–10.83% reduction in malondialdehyde content, a 12.71–22.70% increase in total root length, a 13.41–24.14% increase in root surface area, and a 12.46–19.02% increase in root volume. Taken together, integrating straw return with a calcium-magnesium mixture represents a promising strategy for improving the quality of coastal saline soils.

Heavy metal stress inhibits plant growth, but this impact is less studied and pronounced under climate change conditions. The present study investigates the physiological, biochemical, and agronomic responses of wheat (C3) and maize (C4) exposed to varying thallium (Tl) stress (60 and 120 mg/kg) under ambient (aCO₂) and elevated (eCO₂, 710 µmol/mol) CO₂ levels. High Tl exposure markedly reduced grain yield by 58% in wheat and 68% in maize at 120 mg/kg under aCO₂. However, eCO₂ partially offset the negative effects, increasing yield by ~20% in wheat and 36% in maize at 60 mg/kg Tl. eCO₂ enhanced photosynthetic activity under eCO₂, which increased the accumulation of soluble sugars under TI stress. These provide carbon skeletons for the synthesis of primary metabolites such as amino acids, organic acids and fatty acids. Although total fatty acid content declined under stress, the metabolic crosstalk initiated by improved photosynthesis and sugar availability enables plants to maintain key fatty acids (such as palmitic, linolenic, and oleic acids) essential for membrane stability and function. Amino acids, especially proline and cysteine, accumulated significantly under Tl stress. These primary metabolites, in turn, feed into secondary metabolic pathways, promoting the formation of phenolic acids and flavonoids that enhance antioxidant defence and stress tolerance. This metabolic cascade explains eCO₂’s capacity to alleviate TI stress and improve crop performance, and underscores the value of leveraging eCO₂ environments to support agricultural productivity and food security under challenging conditions.

Enhancing sustainability in agriculture requires innovative practices that boost crop productivity while conserving natural resources. This two-season field study (2023–2025) in sandy soils of El Sadat City, Egypt, evaluated the combined effects of nano-fertilisers and seed priming on the growth and yield of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Five fertilisation regimes, ranging from 100% conventional to 100% nano-formulations, were tested under both primed and unprimed seed treatments. The results demonstrated that the integration of nano-fertilisers with seed priming significantly improved sugar yield (up to 36.1 t/ha), sucrose content (20.35%), and nitrogen use efficiency (55.1 kg sugar/kg N). Post-harvest soil analysis showed improved nutrient retention, indicating enhanced environmental performance. This approach supports climate-smart agriculture by optimising nutrient input, reducing losses, and improving soil sustainability. Our findings highlight the potential of nano-agronomic inputs to contribute to global food security under conditions of climate change.

To address the issue of low soil nutrients and low crop yields in coastal alkaline salines, a field experiment of straw combined with plastic film mulching in coastal alkaline salines was conducted in this study to explore the effects of different treatments on soil nutrients, enzyme activities and maize yield. Four treatments, including no mulching (NM), straw mulching (SM), plastic film mulching (PM), and straw mulching combined with plastic film mulching (SP), were set up during 2019–2020. In the 0–20 cm soil layer, compared with NM, the soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil catalase activity (SCA) of SM significantly increased by 23.4% and 46.2%, respectively (P < 0.05). The soil total nitrogen (STN), soil available phosphorus (SAP), available potassium (SAK), sucrase activity, urease activity, alkaline phosphatase activity, and maize yield (MY) of SP significantly increased by 40.7, 26.8, 13.9, 34.6, 73.8, 36.2 and 19.0%, respectively (P < 0.05). SOC, STN, SAP, SAK and SCA were significantly correlated with MY. Therefore, straw mulching combined with plastic film mulching has the best effect on increasing soil nutrients, soil enzyme activity, and maize yield and is suitable for promotion and application in coastal alkaline salines.

Grasslands are the predominant land use type in China, which is currently encountering significant desertification issues. Consequently, restoring grassland vegetation has important implications for terrestrial carbon (C) levels and, consequently, the global C balance. This study focused on Salix cupularis, the primary plant used for desert control on the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. We analysed the rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil up to the depth of 60 cm after Salix cupularis growth for 0–24 years, examining soil total organic carbon (TOC) and its labile fractions. Following restoration, there was a gradual increase in TOC and its labile fractions, with the most significant changes observed in the rhizosphere soil at a depth of 0–20 cm. After 24 years of restoration, the TOC content in both rhizosphere and non-rhizosphere soil had increased by 141.74% and 39.44%, respectively. Labile organic C in the rhizosphere soil increased more rapidly and pronouncedly compared with the TOC. Specifically, dissolved organic C and easily oxidised organic C in the rhizosphere soil saw substantial increases of 211.03% and 217.65%, respectively. Meanwhile, compared with the 4 years of restoration, soil C pool management index of the 8–24 years soils increased, ranging from 15.70% to 132.21%. Therefore, long-term vegetation restoration on the eastern margin of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau can significantly enhance TOC and its labile fractions, as well as improve soil C sink capacity and quality.

This study comprehensively investigates the impact of varying red-to-blue light ratios on the growth of Spanish lettuce. The research considers various factors such as growth morphology, photosynthetic parameters, and chlorophyll fluorescence. Lettuce was cultivated in an environment with a photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 200 ± 20 μmol/m²/s and a photoperiod of 16 h per day. The experiment incorporated eight distinct light treatment methodologies, with the red-to-blue light ratios ranging from 2 : 8 (R2B8) to 9 : 1 (R9B1). The data implies that during the initial 20 days of growth, groups exposed to a higher proportion of red light demonstrated superior growth. In particular, the R9B1 group exhibited the highest increase in plant height. The photosynthetic performance of leaves (net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and transpiration rate) showed a tendency to rise with a decreasing red-to-blue ratio within a particular range, peaking at R3B7. However, both the dry matter content and fresh weight were relatively lower under the R3B7 light quality ratio. The results indicate that cultivating lettuce under the R8B2 ratio led to optimal outcomes. This group significantly outperformed the other test groups in terms of weight and exhibited higher photosynthetic rates. Despite exhibiting lower stomatal conductance, this group reduced energy consumption and ultimately achieved the highest overall weight.

o uncover the regulatory metabolism of poly-glutamic acid (PGA) in protecting wheat crops against salt stress (SS) at the physiological level, we utilised hydroponic experiments to explore the roles of PGA in regulating the photosynthetic performance, water physiology, antioxidant metabolism and ion homeostasis of wheat seedlings exposed to SS for 10 days. The findings demonstrated that SS inhibited the photosynthetic performance of wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA all improved the photosynthetic performance, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS decreased nonphotochemical quenching (q_N) by 26.3% and respectively increased photosynthetic rate (Pn), soil and plant analyser development (SPAD) value, maximum photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII) (F_v/F_m), photochemical quenching (q_P) and actual photochemical efficiency of PSII (Y(II)) by 54.0, 27.8, 34.6, 42.4 and 25.8%. For water metabolism, SS destroyed the water balance of wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA enhanced water balance, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS decreased leaf water saturation deficit (LWSD) by 35.5% and respectively increased leaf relative water content (LRWC), transpiration rate (T_r), stomatal conductance (g_s) and the contents of soluble sugars (SSS) and proline (Pro) by 15.9, 94.7, 37.5, 44.6 and 62.3%. For antioxidant metabolism, SS induced the peroxide damage to wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA all mitigated the SS-induced peroxide damage, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS respectively decreased superoxide anion (O₂^–), hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents and electrolyte leakage (EL) by 39.1, 29.6, 46.2 and 36.3%, and respectively increased superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase (GR), dehydroascorbate reductases (DHAR) and monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) activities, and antioxidants ascorbic acid (AsA) and glutathione (GSH) contents by 69.2, 49.2, 77.8, 80.6, 109.5, 121.7, 104.5, 63.8 and 39.6%. Besides, SS destroyed the ion homeostasis of wheat seedlings. In contrast, different doses of PGA all maintained ion homeostasis, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS reduced Na+ content by 40.7% and respectively increased K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ contents by 64.4, 82.6 and 105.6%, thereby respectively increasing K⁺/Na⁺, Ca²⁺/Na⁺ and Mg²⁺/Na⁺ ratios by 177.6, 209.4 and 244.8%. In the above ways, SS inhibited wheat height and biomass. In contrast, different doses of PGA all improved wheat height and biomass under SS, especially for 0.3% PGA. Compared with SS, 0.3% PGA plus SS, respectively, increased wheat height and biomass by 27.4% and 41.7%. In the above ways, PGA mitigated salt toxicity in wheat seedlings. The current findings implied that there was a potential for the use of PGA in real situations to improve wheat salt tolerance, especially for the 0.3% dose.